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Biology 211 > Chapter 30 & 31 > Flashcards

Chapter 30 & 31 Flashcards

1
Q

prokaryotes

A

No nucleus, unicellular, few organelles or structure components

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2
Q

eukaryotes

A

Nucleus, numerous organelles, cytoskeleton

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3
Q

Protists

A

Eukaryote, not a green plant, an animal or a fungus

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4
Q

fungi

A

filamentous body (mycelium) obtain nutrients by absorption

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5
Q

Why study Fungi

A

Nutrient recycling
Carbon Cycle
Economic uses

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6
Q

Nutrient recycling

A

Most are decomposers
This means that when they are in close association with plants the plants benefit from the increase in nutrients
Mycorrhizal- fungal root

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7
Q

Mycelia

A

formed by Actinobacteria

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8
Q

Mycelium

A

formed by a fungus

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9
Q

Carbon Cycle

A
  • Saprophytes: digest dead material
  • Land plants Cell walls contain lignin and cellulose
  • Fungi break down the wood into sugars and other organic compounds
  • Fungi do this faster than other decomposers
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10
Q

Economic impact

A
  • Food: mushrooms,
  • Decomposition of food: fungal parasites or mold
    • Chestnut trees
  • Yeast: bread, soy sauce, cheese, beer
  • Fungal enzymes: are used in food production
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11
Q

How do we study them?

A

Morphologically
Phylogenies: DNA sequencing
Isotope analysis

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12
Q

Morphology

A
  • Two growth forms: yeasts and mycelia
  • Some fungi can switch between the two forms
  • Yeasts
  • Mycelium
  • Reproductive structures
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13
Q

Yeasts

A

Single celled fungi
Form psuedo-hyphae (molds)
Fermentation
Mostly asexual

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14
Q

Mycelium

A
  • Indefinite growth
  • Largest found: 6.5 km^2 or 1310 acres
  • Mycelium are constantly changing according to food sources
  • This means that the bod shape of the fungus changes daily
  • Hyphae are very thin, but very long making fungi have the largest Vol to surface area in “multicellular” organisms
  • Mycelium are made up of Hyphae
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15
Q

Hyphae

A

Haploid
heterokaryotic: can contain several nuclei from different parents
Most are dikaryotic
Typically Hyphae are broken up by septa
Septa: wall like structures that separate hyphae , but allow for the transfer of nutrients and genes
If there are no septa than fungi are called:
Coenocytic or common celled
Are fungi multicellular?
Dehydration is common due to thin long hyphae

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16
Q

Reproductive structures

A

The only reason to expose the hyphae to the risk of dehydration sould be….?
The thick fleshy structures are made of hyphae
Four types of reproductive structures

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17
Q

Reproduction

A

Four types of reproductive structures
Swimming gametes or spores: produced by Chytrids, asexual, flagella,
Zygosporangia: produced by zygomycetes, two hyphae that ran into each other and form,two hyphae of similar gametes will not mate
Basidia: produced by basidiomycetes, spores inside mushroom, puffball, brackets
Asci: produces by Ascomycetes, spores inside cups, morels, or other outer structures

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18
Q

Fertilization

A

Typically begins with two hyphae
Two hyphae of similar genetic types will not mate
Instead of male and female you can have thousands of mating types
When two cytoplasm mix: plasogamy occurs
If the nuclei fuse: karyogamy
If nuclei do not fuse the cell is heterokaryotic

The hyphea can then split and grow either with one or two nuclei

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19
Q

Reproductive bodies

A

Puffballs
Mushrooms
Brackets
Cups
Morels
Other shapes

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20
Q

Fungi and animals

A

Both use chitin as a structural material
Flagella in animals and on Chytrids are similar
Synthesize food via glycogen

This is why funguses are harder to treat in humans than bacterial infections

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21
Q

Molecular Phylogenies

A

This is still up for debate
Microsporidians are fungi how they are related is unknown

Chytrids and Zygomycetes are paraphyletic

Glomeromycota, Basidiomycota and Ascomycota: monophyletic

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22
Q

Studies using isotopes

A

Symbiotic relationships between plants and fungi are common
Use isotopes to look at nutrient movement and categorize the relationships
Mutualistic
Parasitic
Commensal
These studies have shown that many fungi give plants P or N and plants give the fungi sugars and carbon compounds

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23
Q

Diversity

A

Mutualism types
Decomposition
Lifecycles

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24
Q

Mutualistic relationships: 2 types

A

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi (EMF):
found in basidiomychota
Sometimes in ascomycetes
Hyphae form a dense covering around root tips
Temperate regions
Use peptidase to break down amino acids

The hyphae secrete proteins suggesting a signaling between the plant and fungi

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF):
Glomeromycota
AKA endomycorrhizal
Grow into the root tissue
80% land plant species
Tropical forests and grasslands
Phosphorus is most important uptake
Glomalin: causes organic materials to bind to soil particles

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25
Q

Endophytes

A

live within the above ground parts of plants
Being newly studied
Mostly seem comensalistic

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26
Q

Mutualism with other species

A

Lichens: ascomycete and cyanobacteria or algae
Go over more later

Farmer ants: harvest and fertilize the fungus for food

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27
Q

Decomposition

A

Mycelium
Large surface area
Quick growth toward food (sahrophytic)
Extracellular digestion
Most organic molecules are huge
Hyphea secrete enzyme that break down these materials
Lignin degradation
Very strong source of protection for plants
Lignin peroxidase remove the protective layer from the cellulose
Cellulose degradation
Multiple enzymes are used to degrade cellulose step by step into glucose

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28
Q

Lifecycles

A

Four types:
Chytridiomycete
Zygomycete
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota

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29
Q

Chytridiomycete

A

Swimming gametes
Diploid zygote
Sporophyte -> sporangium: bosy where spores are stored

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30
Q

Zygomycete

A

protected from cold or draught

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31
Q

Basidiomycota

A

produce and eject spores

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32
Q

Ascomycota

A

Form specialized structures to fuse together

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33
Q

Major Lineages

A

Microsporidia
Chytrids
Zygomycetes
Glomeromycota
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota - > lichen formers
Ascomycota -> non lichen formers

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34
Q

Microsporidia

A

Single celled
Parasitic
1200 species
Absorption
Life cycles vary
Honey bee and silk worm psets
Attack AIDS patients
Used as a pesticide for grasshoppers

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35
Q

CHytrids

A

Mostly aquatic
Spores can germinate after 31 years
Motile cells
Have many cellulose enzymes
Can hurt algae or live in stomachs of animals and help
Parasitise mosquito larvae
Are a main cause for amphibian declines

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36
Q

Zygomycetes

Zygosporangium

A

Soil dwellers
Many are saprophytes
Common bread mold
Fruit molds
Steroids (medical use)

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37
Q

Glomermycota

A

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Phosphorus
Life cycle not well studied
Very important because is common in grasslands and tropics

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38
Q

Basidiomycota

A

Club like or pedastal like
31000 species
Can completely digest wood with lignin peridoxase
Forms “rusts” on plants
“smuts” on grass
Has heterokaryotic mycelia

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39
Q

Ascomycota- lichen formers

A

Live in symbiosis with an algae or cyanobacterium
15000 lichens
Partially parasitic
Lichens are protective of the bacterium most of the time
Perfume production

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40
Q

Ascomycota – non lichen formers

A

Found everywhere
EMF associations
Endophytic fungi
Some are predatory on amoebe or unicellular protists
Set snares or use sticky substances
Ascocarp: above ground structure
Cleans contaminated sites
Truffles and morels
Dutch elm disease

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41
Q

Green algae

A

typically studied in the protists
They are the closest living relative to land plants
They are the transitional bridge from marine to terrestrial life\

Therefore we study them together

42
Q

Pps seaweed

A

protist not a plant
Cellular complexity
Morphological differences

43
Q

Why do we study them

A

Ecosystem services
Food
Building materials

44
Q

Ecosystem services

A

Oxygen
Erosion
Water retention
Climate regulation
Primary producers
Carbon cycle

45
Q

Resources

A

Food
Fuel
Wood burning
Coal :decaying plant material
Fiber
Cotton
Paper fibers
Rope, cloth,
Building Materials
Pharmaceuticals

46
Q

How do we study them

A

Morphological traits
Fossil Record
Molecular phylogonies

47
Q

Morphological traits

A

Similarities with green algae
Chloroplast pigments
Thylakoid arrangement is similar
Cell walls and peroxisoes
Uses starch as a storage product
Land plants: three categories
Non Vascular plants
Seedless vascular plants
Seed plants

48
Q

Fossil Record

A

Green algae come first 700-725 MYA
Helped increase oxygen content
First land plant fossils are 475 MYA
Cuticles (waxy coating around spores)
Silurian Devonian Explosion
416-359 MYA major plant lineage fossils
Carboniferous Period (non vascular)
Ferns, horsetails, mosses
Gymnosperms (251-145 MYA) (seedless vascular)
Flowering plants (150 MYA) (seed)

49
Q

Fossil record

A

Using the fossil record
Green algae became land plants
Land plants then gain vascular tissue and then seeds
The fossil progression leads from water to land
Does the molecular phylogeny concur?

50
Q

Plant Diversity

A
  • Water to land transition

Water retintion
Upright growth
Vascular tissue

  • Reproduction in dry conditions

Gametes
Nourishing offspring
Alternation of generations
Lifecycles
Heterospory
Seeds, flowers, pollination
Fruits

  • Angiosperm diversity
  • Major lineages

Green algae
Bryophytes
Seedless vascular plants
Seed plants

  • Specific unique plant species
51
Q

Water to land: Pros and cons

A
  • Light

Water reflects, refracts and absorbs light

  • Carbon Dioxide

More abundant in the air
Diffuse better in air

  • Need support
  • Less water

Risk of dehydration

52
Q

Water to land: water loss

A

Cuticle : waxy covering that prevents water and nutrient loss
Stoma: covers a pore in the wax that allows intake of CO2
All land plants have stoma

53
Q

Cuticle

A

waxy covering that prevents water and nutrient loss

54
Q

Stoma

A

covers a pore in the wax that allows intake of CO2

55
Q

Water to land: support

A

The first land plants were small and low
They grew to maintain contact with the soil
To solve the problem of support they needed to grow structures to move water and be rigid
Vascular tissue: tissue that transports water, sugar and nutrients

56
Q

Vascular Tissue

A

tissue that transports water, sugar and nutrients

Cellulose
Lignin : polymer, six carbon rings
Lignin is the defining structure of vascular tissue
Tracheids: thin long cells with two cell walls, lignin and pits (380 MYA)
Vessel elements: shorter and wider tracheids (250-270 MYA)
All of these elements are dead

57
Q

Lignin

A

polymer, six carbon rings
is the defining structure of vascular tissue

58
Q

Tracheids

A

thin long cells with two cell walls, lignin and pits (380 MYA)

59
Q

Vessel elements

A

shorter and wider tracheids (250-270 MYA)

60
Q

Water to Land: Gametes

A

Gametangia: reproductive orgins in early land plants
Protected gametes from drying and from damages
In all land plants, other than angiosperms
Antheridium: sperm producing
Archegonium: egg producing

61
Q

Gametangia

A

reproductive orgins in early land plants
Protected gametes from drying and from damages
In all land plants, other than angiosperms

62
Q

Antheridium

A

sperm producing

63
Q

Archegonium

A

egg producing

64
Q

Water to land: eggs

A
  • Green algae forms the eggs and the drops it over winter to grow later
  • Embryophyta: egg retaining plants
    • The eggs formed on the plant
    • Called transfer cells
    • Alteration of generations
65
Q

Embryophyta

A

egg retaining plants
The eggs formed on the plant
Called transfer cells
Alteration of generations

66
Q

Alternation of Generations

A

Gametophyte versus sporophyte
Gametophyte: haploid
Sporophyte: diploid

67
Q

Life cycles: Gametophyte dominants versus Sporophyte Dominant

A

Leafy looking mosses: gametophyte

Ferns and other vascular plants long leafy body types: sporophyte

68
Q

Why transition from gametophyte to sporophyte?

A

Diploid can respond to stressful situation better than haploid

69
Q

Heterospory

A

The production of two distinct spore producing structures and therefore two differently shaped spores
Microsporangia: microspores – sperm or male gametes
Megasporangia: megaspores- female gametes or eggs
This lead to pollen and pollination

Nonvascular and seedless vascular are homospory

70
Q

Microsporangia

A

microspores – sperm or male gametes

71
Q

Megasporangia

A

megaspores- female gametes or eggs

72
Q

Pollen grain

A

male gametophyte surrounded by sporopollenin
Light enough to float in the air

73
Q

Seeds

A

Gymnosperms: seeds but no flowers
Created a portable embryo
Instead of needing to always be near the opposite sex
The seed give the egg protection and food
299 MYA

74
Q

Flowers (angiosperms)

A

Most diverse: 250,000 species
Stamens: have an anther where the microsporangia develops
Carpel: contains overies
Double fertilization: one sperm for fertilization and one sperm for a triploid nutritive tissue

75
Q

Pollination

A

Sepals and petals protect the stamens and carpels
These then evolved into the diverse array of flowers we have today
Why…?
To increase the chance of pollination

Directed Pollination Hypothesis: natural selection favored a carrier instead of the wind
nectar
Correlation between flower and pollinator
Strong experimental support

76
Q

Directed Pollination Hypothesis

A

natural selection favored a carrier instead of the wind

77
Q

Fruits

A

An ovary derived structure that encloses multiple seeds
Nutritious and brightly colored
Allowed seed dispersal to improve

Note once plants could live on land the diversification of plants was centralized around reproduction

78
Q

Angiosperm Radiation

A
  • 125 MY most diversification has been in angiosperms
  • Three key adaptations:
  • Vessels
  • Flowers
  • Fruits
  • Two main classifications of angiospersm
  • Monocots: grasses, orchids, palms
  • Dicots: oaks, daises, roses
  • Moncots: monophyletic
  • Dicots: paraphyletic
  • Eudicots: true dicots
79
Q

Cotyledons

A

first leaf formed

80
Q

Moncots vs Dicots

A

Moncots: monophyletic grasses, orchids, palms
Dicots: paraphyletic oaks, daises, roses

81
Q

Green Algae

82
Q

Key Lineages

A

Green Algae
Non Vascular plants (bryophytes)
Seedless vascular
Seed Plants: gymnosperms and angiosperms

83
Q

Green Algae

Ulvophyceae

A

Sea lettuce
Zygotes are diploid

84
Q

Green Algae

Coleochaetophyceae

A

Flat sheets of cells
Freshwater

85
Q

Green Algae

Charophyceae

A

Stonewarts
Crusts of CaCO3
Indicator species

86
Q

Non Vascular plants (Bryophytes)

A

Low and sprawling
Rhyzoidz: pants connected to soil, rocks, or tree bark
All have flagellated sperm
Spores use wind dispersal

87
Q

Bryophytes

Hepaticophyta

A

Liverworts - had a history
Some species lack pores and have thin cuticles
Soil formation
No medical benefits

88
Q

Bryophytes

Bryophyta

A

(mosses)

Peat is formed

89
Q

Bryophytes

Anthocerophyta

A

Hornwarts
Harbor cyanobacteria

90
Q

Bryophytes

A

Water stay in and air go through it bc of thin cuticles

91
Q

Seedless vascular Plants

A

Paraphyletic
Lignin
Vascular tissue
Sporophyte dominant
Need water to connect gametophyte and sporophyte

92
Q

Seedless Vascular

Lycophyta

A

Club mosses
Microphylls: leaves from stems
Formed coal in carboniferous period

93
Q

Seedless Vascular

Psilotophyta

A

Two genera left
No roots nutrients via fungi

94
Q

Seedless Vascular

Equisetophyta

A

Horsetails
Water logged oxygen poor

95
Q

Seedless vascular

Pteridophyta

A

Ferns
Frond leaves
Used in landscaping and food

96
Q

Seed Plants

A

Gymnosperms: red woods pines
Angiosperms
Seeds, pollen or fruit
Seed plants: annual or perennial

97
Q

Gymnosperms

Cycadophyta

A

Not wood
Sago palms

98
Q

Gymnosperms

Ginkgophyta

A

1 species alive today
Deciduous: loses leaves

99
Q

Gymnosperms

Redwood Group

A

Highly rot resistant
Building materials

100
Q

Gymnosperms

Pinophyta

A

Pines spruces and firs
Largest and most abundant on planet

101
Q

Gymnosperms

Gnetophyta

A

Ephedrine is from this group
Vines, trees and shrubs

102
Q

Angiosperms

Anthophyta

A

Flowering plants
Included flowers and fruits
Highly diverse
Very abundant

Biology 211 (11 decks)

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