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Biology 211 > Chapter 28 & 29 > Flashcards

Chapter 28 & 29 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Bacteria

A

peptidoglycan in cell walls

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2
Q

Archaea

A

phospholipids in their plasma membranes

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3
Q
A
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4
Q

Enrichment cultures

A
  • Growing a culture to a large enough size that you can study them
  • Uses specific temperatures, substrate, nutrients and lightings
  • Focuses on growing a type of bacteria and archaea
  • Historically used the most
  • Can be used to test theories or isolate types
  • Used to test theory that bacteria could live beneath the surface of the earth
  • Null prediction was that magnetite would not grow
  • Magnetite did grow so one of the bacteria produced it and can live below the earth’s surface (860-2800 m)
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5
Q

Direct sequencing

A

Used when the bacteria or archaea can’t be grown in cultures
Isolates genes and determines if they are different from know gene databases
Direct sequencing lead to archaea

Use polymerase chain reaction to purify the DNA
Insert genes into plasmids
Grow a culture
Purify genes again
Sequence the genes
This method destroyed our understanding of extermeophiles

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6
Q

Molecular Phylogenies

A

Placing bacteria or archaea on trees allows scientists to understand the relationships of these small organisms
The trees are still being worked on
RNA

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7
Q

Biological impact

A

Ancient abundant and diverse
Oldest known fossil 3.5 billion years old bacteria
1.7 billion years prokaryotes ruled the earth
400 species = small intestine
128 species = stomach lining
500 species= mouth (200 unnamed or described)

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8
Q

Abundance

A

10^12 microbes on your skin and 10^ 14 in you stomach and intestines
10^3 cells make up your body
1 ml of seawater = 10,000-100,000 microbes
10% of the worlds mass of living material=dead sea microbes

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9
Q

Medical importance

A

Pathogenic bacteria are a fraction of the bacteria that live on your body, but they attack your bodies normal functions
There are several different lineages in the bacteria tree

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10
Q

Koch’s postulates

A
  • Koch determined the link between diseases and bacteria
  • Four postulates
  • Microbe present in sick people only
  • Microbe isolated and grown in a culture
  • If the culture is put into a healthy organism they should get sick
  • The microbe should be isolated again
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11
Q

Germ Theory

A

Koch’s postulates-> Germ theory
States that diseases are infectious
sanitation

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12
Q

What makes bacteria pathogenic?

A

Heritable trait
One pathogenic strain
The microbes then latch onto host cells and secrete toxins
Can cause different symptoms
Diarrhea or other expulsions from the body then leads to the microbes being spread even more if sanitation is poor

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13
Q

Antibiotics

A

can be used to target pathogenic bacteria using target sites

Amoxicillian

1949’s Penicillin
Since then antibiotic resistant strains

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14
Q

Amoxicillian

A

with a broad spectrum of bactericidal activity against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms

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15
Q

MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus)

A

vancomycin

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16
Q

Bioremediation

A

Fertilization to encourage natural bacteria and archaea growth
Seeding to make an area healthier
To gather oil or other pollutants

Example gulf oil spill

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17
Q

Extremophiles

A
  • Has helped make sense of the tree of life
  • Unique in the habiatats they live in
  • pH less that 1.0
  • Depths past 2500 M
  • Anoxic environment
  • 121 degrees celcius (highest)
  • Live in areas that we believe are where life started
  • Use extremophiles to model what possible alien organisms look like
  • Commercial applications
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18
Q

Morphological diversity (Bacteria only)

A

Size: .15 micrometers^3 to 200X 10^6 micrometers
Shapes :filaments, chains, spirals
Motility: flagella and gliding (mechanism unknown)

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19
Q

Cell wall composition (bacteria)

A

Gram positive and negative

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20
Q

Gram positive

A

plasma membrane, peptidoglycan and a cell wall

penicillin, because it disrupts peptidoglycan

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21
Q

Gram negative

A

plasma membrane cell wall, phospholipid bilayer and peptidoglycan

erythromycin, poising the bacterial ribosomes

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22
Q

Cell walls

A

Knowing this allows us to treat the cells differently

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23
Q

Metabolic diversity

Three ways of ATP synthesis

A

Phototrophs

Chemoorganotrophs

Chemolithotrophs

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24
Q

Phototrophs

A

photophosploration and light

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25
Q

Chemoorganotrophs

A

oxidize organic molecules, cellular respiration or fermentation

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26
Q

Chemolithotrophs

A

oxidize inorganic molecules, cellular respiration

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27
Q

Photophosphorlation

A

Bacteria and archaea don’t have to use water as an electron receptor
Typically H2S
They can also complete anoxygenic photosynthesis (without or limited in oxygen)

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28
Q

Fermentation

A

Less efficiant
Typically a second option (not for bacteria and archaea)
Can use molecules other than glucose and can make molecules other than ethanol and lactic acid
Exp: rotting flesh smell is a by product of fermentation called cadaverine and putrescine

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29
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Requires: organic compounds, oxygen and water
Bacteria and Archaea do not follow these rules

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30
Q

Carbon synthesis

A

Two ways of getting building blocks
Autotrophs

Heterotrophs

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31
Q

Oxygen

A

21% of the atmospheric molecules
When the planet was formed there was none
Cyanobacteria: 1st photosynthetic bacteria

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32
Q

Nitrogen Fixation

A

Typically in cyano bcteria and in bacteria near plants
Nitrogen was a limiting factor
The evolution of the enzymes to fix nitrogen make the nitrogen usable

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33
Q

Nitrogen warning

A

Using nitrogen as a fertilizer is great until it reaches the water and causes mass cellular death due to blooms

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34
Q

Bacterial Lineages

A

will focus on six

  • Firmicutes
  • Spirochetes
  • Actinobacteria
  • Chlamydiae
  • Cyanobacteria
  • Proteobacteria
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35
Q

Firmicutes

A
  • Low Guanine and Cytosine
  • Gram positives
  • Rod or spherical
  • Chains or tetrads
  • 1100 species
  • Variety of ATP formations
  • In the human gut
  • Anthrax, botulism, tetanus, gangrene
  • Insecticide,
  • Yogurt and cheese fermentation
  • decomposition
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36
Q

Spirochetes

A

Corkscrew shape and flagella
Outer sheath
Fermentation is the most common
Syphilis, Lyme,
Many live in anaerobic conditions

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37
Q

Actinobacteria

A
  • High guanine and cytosine
  • Gram positive
  • Rods or filament
  • Mycelia: long chains of filaments in soil
  • Most heterotrophs some parasitic
  • 500 antibiotics from Streptomyces alone
  • Tuberculosis and leprosy
  • Swiss cheese
  • Break down of herbicides, nicotine and caffeine
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38
Q

Chlamydia

A
  • 13 species
  • Smallest group
  • Spherical
  • parasitic
  • Called endosymbionts
  • Most common cause of blindness in humans
  • Urogenital tract infections
  • Bird pneumonia
39
Q

Cyanobacteria

A
  • Dominate surface waters
  • 80 species
  • Forms colonies
  • Photosynthesis
  • Produce oxygen
  • Bad smelling water
  • mycrocystins
  • Fix nitrogen
  • Responsible for much of the O2 and nitrogen that is used in marine environments
40
Q

Proteobacteria

A
  • 1200 species
  • Five major subgroups
  • Alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon
  • Large morphological diversity
  • No oxygenic photosynthesis
  • Biotechnology ( E. coli), and gene transfer
  • Cholera, legionaries disease, food poisoning,
41
Q

Archaea

A

Three major Phyla
Korarchaeota
We will focus on: Crenarcheota and Euryarchaetoa

42
Q

Korarchaeota

A

has never been cultured and is only known from direct sequencing

43
Q

Crenarchaeota

A

37 species named
Many shapes
Most similar to original archaea
Sometimes the only life form present in extreme areas
Fermentation and cellular respiration

44
Q

Euryarchaetoa

A
  • 170 species so far
  • High salt and pH habitats
  • Methanogens and use 11 different organic compounds as an electronic acceptor
  • Produce methane
  • Gum disease, produce acid
45
Q

Eukarya

A

Nuclear envelope
Large cells with many organelles
Cytoskeleton
Multicellular is common
Asexual reproduction is by mitosis
Many undergo meiosis and reproduce sexually

46
Q

Protists

A
  • All eukaryotes that are not fungi, land plants, or animals
  • Not a monophyletic group
  • They are a paraphyletic group meaning they represent some but not all of the descendants of a common ancestor
  • No synapomorphy
47
Q

Human health and welfare

A

Potatoes famine: 1845, Phytophthora infestans

  • 1 million people died, many emigrated

Malaria: Plasmodium

  • 30 million people per year in India
  • 1 million people annually die
  • Mosquito
  • The parasite evolves quickly
  • Has evolved to be drug resistant and the mosquitoes have evolved to be insecticide resistant
  • No current way of controlling it

Algal blooms

  • Typically due to dinoflagelletes
  • Can cause toxins and discoloration in water
48
Q

Ecological importance

A

Plankton are protists
Are a key part of aquatic food chains
Main primary producers in the top part of marine environments

Could fix global warming
Protists are the main way that carbon is taken from the atmosphere and placed into the ocean and finally the ocean floor
Iron fertilizations

49
Q

Microscopy

A
  • Traditionally used
  • Organized protists according to overall shape, and organelles
  • Exp: flagellum differ according to protists
  • Synapomorphies: typically the supporting structures or feeding and movement structures
  • Using morphologies 7 major groups
50
Q

Direct Sequencing

A
  • Same as with bacteria and archaea
  • Isolating, purifying, growing, purifying and studying a specific set of genes
  • 2001 first direct sequencing of eukaryotes
  • Using this we proved that protists can be smaller than .5 micrometers
51
Q

Morphological Innovations

A

Nuclear envelope
Mitochondria
Support and protection
Multicellularity

52
Q

Nuclear Envelope

A

Proof

  • In folding is seen in some current bacteria
  • Nuclear Envelope and ER are continuous

Separated RNA and DNA were transcription and translation

53
Q

Different Nuclei

A

Ciliates: diploid micronucleus that only reproduces and macronucleus that transcribes
Diplomanads: have two Nuclei that are identical, interaction unknown
Foraminifera, red algae, plasmodial slime molds: can contain multiple nuclei in calls
Dinoflagellates: no histones, chromosomes attach to the nuclear envelope

54
Q

Endosymbiosis theory

A

the mitochondria originated separately from the bacterial cell and then was taken up by the cells perhaps for food

Natural selection

Some protists and bacteria have it today
Three alpha proteobacteria can be found in only protists
Mitochondria

  • are the same size as alpha proteobacteria
  • replicate through fission
  • Have their own ribosomes
  • Manufacture their own proteins
  • Double membranes
  • Own genes
  • The genes are more closely related to bacteria than eukaryotes
55
Q

why would a mitochondria make the survival of bacteria increase?

A

Host gave mitochondria protection
Mitochondria produced ATP

56
Q

Different mitochondria

A

Diplomonads and parasalids: vestigial trait or lost
Euglenida and related species: cristae in the mitochondria are disc shaped
Opisthokonta : cristae are flat

57
Q

Opisthokonta

A

cristae are flat

58
Q

Structures for support and Protection

A

can have cell walls, support in membrane or shells
Most support structures are synapomorphies

59
Q

Support and Protection

A

Diatoms: SiO2 box and lid structure
Dinoflagelletes: cellulose plates
Forminifera: CaCO3 shell
Forminifera: tiny pebbles

Parasiblids: internal support rod
Euglinids: Protien strips and microtubles on the membrane
Alveolates: alveoli sacs under membrane

60
Q

Multicellularity

A

Not all cells express the same genes
Some bacteria form fruiting bodies
Most multicellular species are eukaryotic
Arose independently in multiple linages
When the same thing evolves separately it is called…

61
Q

Food

A

Ingestive
Absorption
Photosynthesis

62
Q

Ingestive Feeding

A

No cell wall -> feeding by engulfing, requires hunting
Psuedopodia
Yes cell wall-> latches to a place and filter feeds with cilia

63
Q

Absorptive feeding

A

Nutrients are absorbed through the plasma membrane
Typically decomposers or parasites

64
Q

Photosynthesis

A

How did the chloroplast occur…?
Secondary endosymbiosis
Chloroplasts are similar to bacteria like mitochondria
Four membranes
Many cyanobacteria in protists today
Chloroplasts have similar genes, membranes and organelles as cyanobacteria

65
Q

Secondary versus primary

A

More than two membranes within protists
Only two membranes in plants

66
Q

Photosynthesis lead to new species

A

pigments

67
Q

Movement

A

Amoeboid motion: uses pseudopodia

68
Q

Movement

A

Of cilia and flagella

69
Q

Reproduction

A

Sexual reproduction evolved in protists
Typically they reproduce asexually but sometimes sexual reproduction occurs
Sexual reproduction is typically at a specific time or when crowding/lack of food dictates it
Why would a stressful environment cause sexual reproduction?

70
Q

Lifecycles

A

Haploid dominated: normal chromosome number
Diploid dominated: double the chromosome number
Alternation of generations: gametophytes and sporophytes switch

71
Q

Diploid dominated

A

double the chromosome number

72
Q

Haploid dominated

A

normal chromosome number

73
Q

Alternation of generations

A

gametophytes and sporophytes switch

74
Q

Amoeboza-Myxogastrida

A
  • Ameoboza- no cell wall, engulfing, ameboid motion, psuepodia, freshwater,
  • Myxogastrida- plasmodial slime molds
  • Supercell: many nuclei one cell
  • Feed on dead cells
  • Can form spores
75
Q

Ameoboza-

A

no cell wall, engulfing, ameboid motion, psuepodia, freshwater

76
Q

Myxogastrida

A

plasmodial slime molds

77
Q

Supercell

A

many nuclei one cell

78
Q

Excavata

A
  • Feeding groove
  • Unicellular
  • No mitochondria, but have the genetic material from mitochondria
  • Possible vestigial mitochondria
79
Q

Excavata Parabasalida

A
  • No cell wall or mitochondria
  • Flagella connected to microtubules
  • Non free living
  • Termites and parabasalida
  • Engulfing
    *
80
Q

Excavata Diplomonadida

A

Typically oxygen limited environments
Two nuclei
Some parasitic: humans, beavers
Eight flagella
No cell wall

81
Q

Excavata Euglenida

A

410 million years old fossils
No cell wall, inner proteins
1/3 have chloroplasts most eat via engulfing (endosymbiosis)
Planktonic food chains

82
Q

Plantae

A

Includes glaucophyte algae, red algae, green algae,
Land plants are not protists
All have engulfed a photosynthetic cyanobacteria

83
Q

Plantae Rhodophyta

A

6000 species
Red because of the pigment in the chloroplasts
Why should red make living in water easier?
Alteration of generations is common
No flagella
Food and reef building

84
Q

Rhizaria

A

No cell walls
Single celled
Shell like coverings
11 subgroups
Formanifera

85
Q

Rhizaria Foraminifera

A

Shells that specify species
Floaters and engulfers
Numerous in marine habitats
The shells form fossils layers of sediment that eventually become limestone, chalk, or marble.
Foram species help in rock dating studies
Why would these fossils be helpful?

86
Q

Alveolata

A

Small sacs called: Alveoli
Unicellular
Focus on: Ciliata, dinoflagellates, apicomplexa

87
Q

Alveolata Ciliata

A

12,000 species
Two nuclei
Move with cilia
Conjugation or asexual
Digestive tracts of farm animals and marine plankton

88
Q

Alveolata Dinoflagellata

A

Ocean dwelling
Some have bioluminescence
No histones and chromosomes are attached to the envelope at all times
Most planktonic
Two flagella: one around the cell in a groove and one coming out of the cell
Fix carbon, algal blooms, primary producers

89
Q

Alveolata Apicomplexa

A

5000 species all parasitic
Apical complex: allows penetration of the membrane of the host
No cilia or flagella
Absorb nutriants from host
Malaria, infected chickens, pest control

90
Q

Stramenopila (Heterokonata)

A

All have flagella with hollow hairs
Most unicellular
Contains the tallest marine organisms the kelp
Focus on: Oomycota, Diatoms, Phaeophyta

91
Q

Stramenopila Oomycota

A

Thought to be fungi

  • DNA, chitin and primarily aquatic habitat
  • Convergent evolution

Absorb nutrients from dead hosts
Matures individuals are sessile
Unicellular, but form hyphae
Diploid
Caused potatoes famine
Can cause infections in Oaks

92
Q

Stramenopila Diatoms

A

Form chains
Silicon rich, glassy like walls
Floaters, photosynthetic
Most important producer of carbon in water
Found in all aquatic habitats

93
Q

Stramenopila Phaeophyta

A

Brown algae
Mostly marine
Photosynthetic and sessile
Alteration of generations
Algin-> cosmetics and paint
Used as a habitat for many species

Biology 211 (11 decks)

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