Chapter 3: eighteenth and nineteenth century precursors to a scientific psychology: 1700-1850 Flashcards
wat was de eerste gedocumenteerde term psychologie
croatian marko maulié around 1500
wanneer eerste engelse boek met psychologie in de titel
john broughton in 1700
wanneer ontstond het process van western individualization
ongeveer het einde van de middeleeuwen: 500-1500 (dus in 1500)
welke factoren hielpen met de individualisation van western society
- increased complexity of society
- increased control by the state
- individuality promoted by christianity
- mirrors, books and letters
hoe kan increased complexity of society leiden tot meer individualisation
meer urbanization and indistrialization put people into more complex and competitive social networks, in which everyone struggled to remain dignity and meaning
wat zei foucault
dat increased control by the state leidde tot individualisatie: doordat de state meer controle hadden hadden mensen de behoefte om meer op te vallen in de crowd
wat was individualisation promoted by christianity
each persons private state of faith and relation to god is the essence of piety
hoe beinvloeden mirrors, books and letters de individualisation
mirrors made people more aware of themselves and the impressions they leave on others. printing further enhanced the interest and fascination for others. novel: deeper detail to the depiction of others
who was the first philosopher after the ancient greeks to value new and independent thinking (whilst others clung to aristotle and the church)
descartes
wanneer was descartes er
rond 1600
aristotle did not believe in the existence of …. but he did consider….
ideal forms
reason and deduction as pillars of theoretical knowledge, a conviction embraced by the church and nearly all philosophers up to and including descartes
welke twee dingen van empiricisme waren belangrijk voor science
inductive reasoning and observation
wat zei aristotle over observation
observation is a source of knowledge
aristotle was the first to publish treatises entirely based on careful observation
oke
baconian science =
inductive reasoning (generalisations from observations)
wanneer was john locke
1630-1740
empiricism=
the conviction that there is no innate knowledge and that all knowledge arises from sensory experience and induction. the human mind is a blank state
locke’s writings were rather….
cautious: he was aware of the limits of perception
materisch empiricisme=
een stroming binnen de filosofie die de mentale processen herleidt tot materie
idealistisch empiricisme=
benadrukken de afhankelijkheid van de werkelijkheid van het bewustzijn
kijken in schrift naar tijdlijn!!!
oke
wanneer was berkeley vooral actief
rond 1700
wat was de stroming die geassocieerd is met berkeley
idealism
wat was berkeley: empiricist of rationalist?
hij was een empiricist, but seems like a rationalist at times
Hume’s principle of contiguity=
because causes are never observed directly, we derive them from experiencing the co-occurence of phenomena.
rationalism = (5 kenmerken: main idee, source of knowledge, research method, applications & persons)
- existence of innate knowledge
- reason is the source of knowledge
- main research method = deductive reasoning
- main applications: logic and mathematics
- plato & descartes
empiricism=
- no innate knowledge (blank slate)
- perception is the source of knowledge
- main research methods: observation, experimentation, inductive reasoning
- main applications: natural sciences
- natural philosophers, Locke, Berkely, Hume
idealism =
view that human knowledge is a construction of the mind and does not neccessarily correspond to an outside world
wat zei Hume over de observatie van causes
because causes are never observed directly, we derive them from experiencing the co-occurence of phenomena.
wat zei berkeley over perception
All that we can be certain of is our perception: we don’t know if a table is actually there, we just know that we see it. Can it be our own mind? No, not in our own power. Therefore: other Will or Spirit that produces our perceptions
if the soul entirely consists of impressions acquired through observation, then we have no guarantee that the contents of the soul are a faithful rendition of the world.
Hume: we associate by….
familiarity. because situations resemble each other, we assume they come from the same entity in the world
Hume en Kant: who reacted to who
Kant reageerde op Hume. dus hume was eerst, daarna kant
wat wilde kant bereiken met zijn reactie op hume
dat newton protected zou worden van hume
wat was kant voor stroming: empiricism of rationalism
hij combineerde empiricism met rationalism!!
want kant = twee kanten
2 main punten van de reactie van kant
- perception is much richer than postulated by hume and berkeley
- such perception can only exist in a world of things that is not in contradiction with it
francis bacon was een….
empiricist
wat zei kant over empiricisme en rationalisme
by combining input from senses and understanding, we can come to concepts and judgements that generalize across the perceived instances and go beyond basic experiences. the mind adds knowledge to sensations that are not derived from the observation itself, and can therefore be called innate.
wat waren volgens kant de meest belangrijke types of knowledge added by the mind
en dus innate: time, space and cause-effect
wat zei kant over time
because there is continuity in the understanding and the perceptions, the mind can conclude that there must be continuity in time both for the observer and the observed.
wat zei kant over space
because sensations are experienced as caused by something from the outside, there is a sense of space that need not be learned
wat zei kant over cause-effect sequences
the mind puts forward the assumption that every event has a cause: therefore the mind sees cause-effect sequences wherever possible
kant zei dit over humans, knowledge en environment
humans are not merely centers of knowledge. they are agents operating in the environment on the basis of their knowledge
wat zei Reid
berkely and hume’s idealism has gone too far, we need to return to common sense.
the decouling of the mind and reality (by descartes) has spun out of control, philosophy needs to return to the view of aristotle of perception as a simple record of the world as it is.
wat zei kant over psychologie
psych is geen science, want het kan niet ingedeeld worden in mathematical laws, heeft geen axioms, geen rational analysis en geen indisputible demonstrations. empirical approach leads to collections of facts that can be ordered and classified = historical doctrine of nature, dit is het enige wat psychologie kan worden.
wat zei kant over introspection
kant was tegen introspection, want kan niet informulas worden gezet (geen aspects of space and substance, only time).
the act of introspection by itself changes and displaces the state of the observed mind
wie was de main philosopher van de enlightenment
Kant
wat deed wolff
defined the concept of psychology
wanneer was wolff
1700
wat zei wolff dat nodig was voor psychologie
psych starts from axioms, which had to be derived from more fundamental disciplines. on the basis of deductive reasoning, these axioms would lead to the demonstration of new knowledge. this guarantees true conclusions.
pure reason without observation induces a risk, therefore psychology needs a close interaction between reason and observation. this is build on introspection. psych should aim for mathematical demonstrations, only then there is full understanding
waar was reid tegen
het idealisme van hume en berkeley
aristotle’s 3 parts of metaphysics
- ontology (study of universe and its entities)
- natural theology (study of Gods)
- universal science (study of axioms and demonstrations on which theoretical knowledge is based)
bij wie hoorde het positivism
auguste comte
kant antropologie
hij schreef een boek over human functioning, but did not call it a science -> collection of narratives (over physiognomy)
physiognomy
deriving ppls character from their appearance or behaviour
Herbart
published a book: lehrbuch zur psychologie in 1816. gebaseerd op wolff’s division between empiricism and rational psychologie, with mathematical formulas
phrenology
the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of character
comte over psychologie
denied psych as a science due to problems with introspection
comte heeft ontwikkeld…
positivism en sociology
comte: the only way the mind can be studied is via….
biology and products of the mind.
comte’s hierarchy of six sciences
- mathematics
- astronomy
- physics
- chemistry
- biology
- sociology
wat zei comte over die six sciences
the lower levels are dependent on the laws they make in the upper levels, making them take longer before reaching the same level of perfection
upham
schreef een boek over moral and mental philosophy.
bain
publishes the senses and the intellect & emotions and the will in 1855. includeerde ook physiology
herbart
publishes lehrbuch zu psychologie in 1816
hooke
determined the minimal visual angle that could be discriminated, in 1600. belangrijk voor de telescoop en microscoop
mayer
onderzocht de limit of vision
wanneer wordt het einde van de enlightenment gezien
als de dood van kant (1804)
Weber
audition, all the tactile senses.
studied het gevoel van een kompas (dichter bij elkaar is minder het gevoel dat er 2 verschillende dingen je prikken) en studied dat mensen beter kunnen inschatten wat verschillen tussen gewichten zijn als ze hun armen mogen optillen (dus discrimination relies on muscle and joints)
Fechner
mathematical law connecting sensation magnitude to stimulus intensity
who invented psychophysics
weber & fechner
the personal equation
ze kwamen er achter dat niet iedereens observaties hetzelfde waren -> meer interesse in de psychologie en individuele verschillen vanuit andere (toen nog: echte) sciences
von Hemholtz
1860: measure the speed of nerve impulses
Donders
mental chronometry, relatie tussen reaction time, perception and mental processes
carlos linneaus
classification of plants and animals
what was Darwins’ first observation
although many plants can fertilize themselve, they did not, and if they did, those offspring were less healthy than those produced by cross-fertilization.
the dilution problem
darwin failed to explain how a single new plant or animal could come to dominate the rest. Jensen zei namelijk dat de genes zouden dilluten in de group, totdat er niks van overblijft.
uiteindelijk zei darwin dat evolution alleen mogelijk was when a change in the environment favored a whole group of individuals at the same time
common misunderstandings of evolutionary theory
- there is no direction in genetic changes
- organisms do not become better or stronger
there is no direction in genetic changes =
genetic material does not have knowledge of the environment. it is all random, sometimes an alteration results in increases in chances of the organisms survival and/or reproductive success -> this variant increases in number at the expense of the other variants
organisms do not become better or stronger =
adaptations do not need to be for the better: bijvoorbeeld dat wolven en mammoths in aantallen afnamen door mensen (terwijl zij heel sterk en beter zijn) en huiselijke dieren groeiden juist (terwijl zij minder sterk en minder slim zijn)
Galton:
wanted to show heredity in human traits (particularily intelligence).
-> statistician (regression, correlation, regression to the mean), grondlegger van eugenetica.
neef van Darwin (daarom eugenetics)
wat is het verschil tussen psych en physics research
physics: extremely accurate measurements of a few observations
psychology: large numbers of observations, so that the noise can be cancelled out.
quetelet
rond 1850, BMI geintroduceerd en analysed crime (ook statistician).
