Chapter 2: the scientific revolution of the 17th century and its aftermath: 1500 to 1700 Flashcards
psychology (word) appeared in the literature in….
1500, in 1730’s pas in de titel
wat waren 3 critical insights van de 17e eeuw
- earth niet centre of the universe
- many things on earth could be undersstood as complicated machines
- the demonstration that many movements on earth and the universe could be described using simple math equations (=the laws of physics)
16th century: increasing interest in astronomy because…
the Julian calendar was getting out of phase with reality -> replaced with gregorian calendar (which required a lot of astronomic observations and calculations)
-> Nicolaus copernicus
wie was belangrijk in het vervangen van de gregorian calendar naar de julian calendar
Nicolaus Copernicus
wat was het model van de universe in 16e eeuw (1500)
geocentric model: earth as the centre of the universe
geocentric model =
earth is the centre.
door aristotle, uitgebreid door ptolemy. earth surrounded by fixed stars which circled in perfect harmony. between the earth and stars are seven wandering stars
probleem met geocentric model
movement of some of the wandering stars: displacements in the stars locations are not fixed.
hoe legde ptolemy de displacement van locations uit
epicycles: small cycles made by the stars, in addition to their cycle around the earth
because of the persisting calendar issue interest in the precise movements in the universe grew, resulting in improved translations of Ptolemy’s main work Almagest, and an eagerness to read the arab commentaries on this book
oke
copernicus model =
- heliocentric model
- one turn of the earth around the sun took one year
- one turn around the sun took one year and one turn oroudn the earths own axis took a day
- epicycles voor mars, venus etc
copernicus model had many problems, so…
the impact was not large
who was the first person to take copernicus’ model serious
johannes Kepler
kepler gebruikte…
elliptical orbits instead of circular ones
galilei=
telescoop:
- many more stars than were visible to the naked eye
- surface of the moon not smooth
- jupiter has 4 moons
- sizes of mars and venus differed -> distances to earth changed over time.
- venus had phases just like the moon
wat was de response of the catholic church op galileo
galilei: stop defending copernicus’ model and his book was prohibited. put under house arrest.
3 dingen tussen galilei en de church
- the reformation made the christian church not want to be seen as weak
- galilei ridiculed the church in his book
- not everyone agreed with the development in galilei’s trial
descartes was about to publish a book of his heliocentric world view but held back because the treatment galilei had gotten. he started to think about how he could build a new philosophy which would reconcile the church with natural philosophy. it turned out to be equally devastating for the status of the religious world view
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descarted identified the soul as…
divine and independent of everything else.
what did descartes think about humanitarian science
because of the souls divinity, human thoughts and feelings could not be studied by the natural sciences and fell under philosophy and religion.
wat is een overeenkomst tussen plato en descartes
the soul has innate knowledge which could be reached by reasoning
descartes’ second move was….
to view the universe and all the matter in it as one big sophisticated machine that could be studied by humans
descares believed that god…
had endowed humans with reason so that they could study this machinery
waar kwam descartes vandaan
frankrijk, maar leefde een groot deel van zijn leven in nederland
door wie was descartes beinvloed
dutch protestant philosophers
wat was het verschil tussen descartes en aristoteles over the universe enzo
A: animism + everything and everyone has a purpose
D: rejected all goals, emotions and intelligence in nature and claimed that everything was a perfectly designed mechanism, made to function independently (so that God did not have to attend to it). the only exception he made was the human soul
who supported science and who did not
aristoteles did not support science. descartes did support science and the church
main critics on descartes
hoe kan de immortal soul (non-physical) steer the mechanism of the human body, which is mortal and physical
wat was descartes zijn oplossing
gaat via de pineal gland.
(maar snel vonden mensen dit unconvincing)
wat had newton ontdekt over de aarde
als je een cannon op een berg zette, en een bal schoot met genoeg kracht, zou het niet hard genoeg op de grond vallen en dus een rondje om de aarde maken. als je de luchtwrijving weg zou halen zou het helemaal voor altijd doorgaan -> objects attract each other!!
the pulling force of the earth on the cannonball was immensely larger than the other way around
wanneer was newton actief
1600
wat heeft newton uiteindelijk gedaan voor de planetary motions
precies uitgerekend hoe het universum van copernicus kon werken
factors that contributed to the scientific revolution
- demographic changes
- absence of religion or authority
- new inventions
- universities and patronage
- enrichment greek and arab civilizations
- natural philosophy became detached from the big philosophical questions
demographic changes =
europes population halved during the:
- famine (hongersnood)
- black death
- 100 years war
100 years war =
tussen frankrijk en engeland
joan of arc=
is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years’ War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France.
Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination
welk systeem kwam aan een einde aan het einde van de 15e eeuw
feudal system came to an end (crusades) -> depleted the aristocracy
aristocracy
a form of government in which power is held by the nobility (erfgenaam)
welke mensen kwamen nu een soort van er bij als groep (in de 17e eeuw dus)
een groep mensen die tussen de previous slaves zat en de intellectual elite: merchants
wat gebeurde er in china met deze nieuwe groep mensen
the bureaucrats prevented merchants from becoming a social group with an autonomous power base in society
schism =
is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a single religious body, such as the Great East–West Schism or the Western Schism. It is also used of a split within a non-religious organization or movement
door welke 3 dingen werd de christelijke kerk steeds meer weggeduwd
- the schism
- martin luther: protestant reformation
- christian religion made a distinction between worldly and heavenly: church could be in control of the religious matters, the king of the worldly matters. but they were often in disagreement which reinforced the dualistic views.
wat gebeurde er toen de christelijke kerk steeds meer weg werd geduwd
toen konden de boeken van galileo vrij gepubliceerd worden
Holland (2008) zei dat de movement tegen de church begon in….
11e centrury: want voor dat waren mensen steeds aan het wachten op the day of judgement in 1000/1033 (the day in the future when all people who are living or dead will be judged by God.)
toen dat voorbij was hadden mensen er niet perse meer zin in
wat voor inventions in de 17e eeuw
klok:
- provided philosophers with a working example of the mechanical world
- establishment of a group of professional watch and clockmakers, who could make the high precision equipment needed for future experiments. the compass, tele and microscope had significant impacts on war and trade
wat voor invloed hadden universiteiten
- place for natural philosophers
- conveyed the message that knowledge about nature was a worthwile activity
- increased chances of patronage by wealthy families
- experiments that baffled the audience: made knowledge more popular than the writings of religious and humanistic thinkers
homo universalis=
een term waarmee een erudiet persoon (mannelijk of vrouwelijk) wordt aangeduid die al zijn faculteiten en vaardigheden ontwikkelt, dus bijvoorbeeld een goed ontwikkeld atletisch lichaam, maar ook een scherp verstand en bekwaamheden op veel gebieden, met name in de kunsten.
wat was de massive enrichment of greek and arab civilizations
in de 16e eeuw kwamen er veel teksten van aristotle en plato vrij, epicurus en lucretius information werd ook beschikbaar.
wat zeiden epicurus en lucretius
the world consists of atoms moving in an empty space
waardoor kwam er een increased access to greek writings
- fall of constantinople in 1453 -> flight of greek scholars to italy.
cohen: major breakthroughs due to the interaction between two main civilisations. -> fluidity and dynamism in which new ideas can grow
natural philosophy became detached from the big philosophical questions =
knowledge of nature was at first only thought to make sense in the framework of a comprehensive view of the universe and man’s place in it. gradually this view was let go and it was allowed to study a phenomenon without the knowledge of totality of things
factors that helped the fledging science grow
- absence of disaster
- a benevolent religion
- the establishment of learned societies
a benevolent religion =
the protestant church encouraged followers to study the bible, but also science to set them apart from the roman catholic church.
the establishment of learned societies=
philospers created universities and learned societies where they could meet up and share ideas. also published.
francis bacon stressed the importance of…
interaction between perception and reason
gestalt psychology =
assumed that the brain had self-organizing principles, and people experienced the world in terms of patterns
wat dachten plato en aristotle over knowledge build on observation
scientific knowledge cannot be build on observation, because the world is to volatile and we should seek for discovering via reason
wat dacht descartes over observation
he minimized the existence of sensory experience, dacht dat dit niet te vertrouwen was.
tegen wie ging bacon in
aristotles view (Organom -> Novum Organum)
wat zei bacon over observatie en reasoning
he claimed that neither perception nor reasoning alone provides progress: their interaction is important!
wat zei Bacon over perception
- biased by peoples convictions
- particular attention to deviating observations
- even when observations are right, they do not result in useful knowledge unless combined with reasoning and understanding
- recommends putting observations together to form a firmer basis by a tougher coupling between observations and reasoning
- he urged to make observations more systematic: create a firmer empirical basis for thinking to build upon
Bacon: no one should go beyond the experiments mechanics set up to solve practical problems and clarifying experiments for experimenta lucifera
ultimately observations and clarifying experiments should result in deeper understanding
crucial instance =
(bacon)
wanneer een observation of experiment beslist tussen twee alternatieve explanations
wat voor soorten axioms zei Bacon dat er zijn
lesser axioms -> staying close to the observations
middle axioms -> which are true and solid axioms on which the affairs and fortunes of men depend
highest axioms -> general and abstract
boyle
first laws of gass, experiments should be performed publicly, reported in such detail that everyone should be able to replicate them
deductive reasoning =
start from a number of indisputable premises from which new conclusions are drawn. if the premises are right and it is logical: must be true.
wie gebruikte deductive reasoning
plato
wat deed aristotle met deductive reasoning
added syllogisms and rules to follow.
waarom was deductive reasoning appealing voor church
omdat het assumes some innate knowledge
wie proposed inductive reasoning
Bacon!
dus wie deden deductive, en wie inductive
deductive = plato, aristotle, church en descartes
inductive = bacon
inductive reasoning =
when likely conclusions are drawn on the basis of a series of converging observations
wat was het kritiek van bacon en descartes op plato en aristotle over deductive reasoning
- Bacon: questioned these indisputable premises, thought innate knowledge was questionable and should be replaced by knowledge based on observation and induction.
- Descartes: found their premises unsatifying, tried to find new improved ones: cogito ergo sum
hoe kwam descartes bij cogito ergo sum
everything is doubtable except for the fact of doubting itself. (wat weer leidde tot dualism)
B did not argue for a replacement of DR by IR!!!
want hij was zich bewust van de limitaties van perceptie en inductive reasoning
wat stelde bacon wel voor over inductive reasoning en axioms
dat er meer gekeken moet worden naar een combinatie van axioms en perceptie, in which observations were used to formulate and evaluate axioms, and in which axioms guided perception
wat zei Whewell over aristotle
hij zei dat A’s problem niet zijn refusal of use of observation and IR was, but that he failed to integrate his observations with theoretical knowledge
natural history=
(bacon): the process of careful observation and formulation of lower and middle axioms through IR
wat was er met die axiomen
door middel van experiments kan je van lagere axioms naar hogere axioms gaan
wat had bacon onderschat
de importance of reasoning beyond observation in scientific research
wat was een belangrijke factor van de ontwikkeling van de scientific revolution
the awareness that a lot of knowledge had not been discovered, and not be retrieved from antiquity
waar dacht bacon dat de meeste knowledge was
in oudere tijden, dus voor plato en aristotle
van wanneer tot wanneer was de scientific revolution
1543-1687
waarom zeggen mensen dat de scientific revolution eindigde in 1687
Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematica. This work was a compilation of all the major discoveries of the time, including gravity and the laws of motion. The Scientific Revolution was followed by a period known as the Enlightenment.
five positive outcomes of the scientific revolution
- mechanical devices lightened the burden of manual work, increased production
- people lived longer (better nutrition, hygene and medical care)
- better health
- literacy
- knowledge about the world
wat gebeurde er met careers in de scientific revolution
het ging niet meer perse om family of origin, maar je kon ook een scientific career maken om meer social mobility te krijgen.
new type of skill: emphasis on the individual rather than on the family
the differentiation of occupations made society…
more complex and progressively reliant on recipe knowledge. individuals knew how to operate new tools but they did not need to know about their workings. knowledge had become more distributed.
the more successfull science grew, the more the intellectuals in the west…
began to see it as a way to organize society
postitivism=
science is the only source of true knowledge and the only possible objects of knowledge consists of observable facts and scientific laws
what was the movement that promoted the social value of science
positivism
met wie is de term positivism gerelateerd
auguste comte
comte:
advanced the hypothesis that civilizations pass through three progressive stages: the law of three stages
wat waren de 3 stages van comte
- the theocratic stage
- metaphyisical stage
- positivistic stage
theocratic stage=
in which gods and spirits dominate the culture: animism -> polytheism
metaphysical stage=
philosophical explanations predominate
positivistic stage=
explanations are provided by the natural sciences, this society reaches maturity.
wat zijn drie dingen die de positivism movement wilde overbrengen
- science is gebaseerd op observation en experimentation, and therefore always right
- scientific theories are summaries of observations and therefore always right
- because scientific knowledge is always true, it should be the motor of all progress
wat zei de catholic church over science
second rank, detracting from real wisdom and potentially dangerous if not restrained by religious morals.
protestant churches
ally
however, needed to be morally guided by religion.
dus er was eerst wel een goede relatie tussen de … church en science
protestant
tot wanneer was er een goede relatie tussen de protestant church en science
tot 1870: toen deze church een patronizing authority became. + disagreement over earths age, when fossil findings clashed with the creation idea + darwin
romanticism=
focus on feeling and emotion and non-rational intuition
wat zei romanticism over descartes
overconfident
was romanticism voor of tegen science
tegen!!!
wat zei snow over de divide tussen science and religion/humanities
communication between the two was rare, which is a loss for society because the parties could have learned from one another
Aristotle’s peripatetic principle can be summarized as:
(a) To be is to be perceived.
(b)Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses.
(c) True premises make true conclusions
b
