Chapter 3

Question 1

Antidote

Answer 1

A remedy to prevent or counteract an adverse effect.

Question 2

Assimilation Bias

Answer 2

The propensity to resolve discrepancies between preexisting schemas and new information in the direction of assimilation rather than accommodation, even at the expense of distorting the information itself.

Question 3

Availability Bias

Answer 3

Any condition in which the availability heuristic produces systematic errors in thinking or information processing, typically due to highly vivid although rare events

Question 4

Availability Heuristic

Answer 4

A cognitive strategy for quickly estimating the frequency, incidence, or probability of a given event based on the ease with which such instances are retrievable from memory

Question 5

Barnum Effect

Answer 5

A phenomenon that refers to people’s willingness to accept uncritically the validity of Barnum statements.

Question 6

Barnum Statement

Answer 6

Any generic “one-size-fits-all” description or interpretation about a particular individual that is true of practically all human beings.

Question 7

Belief Perseverance Effect

Answer 7

The tendency to cling stubbornly to one’s beliefs, even in the face of contradictory or disconfirming evidence.

Question 8

Bias

Answer 8

A prejudicial inclination or predisposition that inhibits, deters, or prevents impartial judgment.

Question 9

Bidirectional Causation

Answer 9

A mutual, reciprocal relationship between two variables wherein each is both a cause and an effect of the other

Question 10

Cognitive Bias

Answer 10

Any systematic error in attribution that derives from limits that is inherent in people’s cognitive abilities to process information

Question 11

Continuous Variable

Answer 11

Any variable that lies along a dimension, range, or spectrum, rather than in a discrete category, that can theoretically take on an infinite number of values and is expressed in terms of quantity, magnitude, or degree.

Question 12

Critical Thinking

Answer 12

An active and systematic cognitive strategy to examine, evaluate, and understand events, solve problems, and make decisions on the basis of sound reasoning and valid evidence. More specifically, critical thinking involves maintaining an attitude that is both open minded and skeptical; recognizing the distinction between facts and theories; striving for factual accuracy and logical consistency; objectively gathering, weighing, and synthesizing information; forming reasonable inferences, judgments, and conclusions; identifying and questioning underlying assumptions and beliefs; discerning hidden or implicit values; perceiving similarities and differences between phenomena; understanding causal relationships; reducing logical flaws and personal biases, such as avoiding oversimplifications and overgeneralizations; developing a tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; exploring alternative perspectives and explanations; and searching for creative solutions.

Question 13

Dichotomous Variable

Answer 13

Any variable that can be placed into either of two discrete and mutually exclusive categories

Question 14

Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 14

A bias in attempting to determine the causes of people’s behavior that involves overestimating the influence of their personality traits, while underestimating the influence of their particular situations; that is, overutilizing internal attributions and underutilizing external attributions

Question 15

Heuristic

Answer 15

A mental shortcut or rule-of-thumb strategy for problem solving that reduces complex information and time-consuming tasks to more simple, rapid, and efficient judgmental operations, particularly in reaching decisions under conditions of uncertainty.

Question 16

Metathinking

Answer 16

The act of thinking about thinking; engaging in a critical analysis and evaluation of the thinking process.

Question 17

Metathoughts

Answer 17

Literally, thoughts about thought, which involve principles of critical thinking.

Question 18

Motivational Bias

Answer 18

Any systematic error in attribution that derives from people’s efforts to satisfy their own personal needs, such as the desire for self-esteem, power, or prestige.

Question 19

Naturalistic Fallacy

Answer 19

An error in thinking whereby the individual confuses or equates objective descriptions with subjective value judgments, in particular, by defining what is morally good or bad solely in terms of what is statistically frequent or infrequent

Question 20

Parataxic Reasoning

Answer 20

A kind of “magical thinking,” frequently responsible for superstitious behaviors, in which events that occur close together in time are erroneously construed to be causally linked

Question 21

Post Hoc Error

Answer 21

A shortened form of post hoc, ergo propter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”), referring to the logical error that because Event B follows Event A, then B must have been caused by A.

Question 22

Representativeness Bias

Answer 22

Any condition in which the representativeness heuristic produces systematic errors in thinking or information processing.

Question 23

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 23

A cognitive strategy for quickly estimating the probability that a given instance is a member of a particular category.

Question 24

Schema

Answer 24

A cognitive structure or representation that organizes one’s knowledge, beliefs, and past experiences, thereby providing a framework for understanding new events and future experiences; a general expectation or preconception about a wide range of phenomena.

Question 25

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Answer 25

A phenomenon wherein people’s attitudes, beliefs, or assumptions about another person (or persons) can, with or without their intent, actually produce the very behaviors that they had initially expected to find.

Question 26

Unidirectional Causation

Answer 26

A relationship between two variables wherein one is the cause and the other is the effect.