Chapter 3

Question 1

Logical positivism

Answer 1

Reality is independent of the knower and can be perceived objectively
If scientific evidence is gathered rigorously a researcher can arrive at a pure, unbiased truth

Question 2

Social constructionism

Answer 2

There is no independent, pure truth, and the knower’s perception of the world is always shaped by the social context
All of our facts are really only educated guesses
Researchers hold expectations and implicit beliefs that affect the way they search for knowledge
Science does not discover truth but construct knowledge

Question 3

Narrative Approach

Answer 3

A qualitative method in which the researcher examines an individual in depth, usually through interviews, and gives them the opportunity to react to the researcher’s interpretations

Question 4

Case history

Answer 4

A qualitative method in which the researcher examines one or several individuals in depth, usually through interviews

Question 5

Phenomenological method

Answer 5

A qualitative method that aims to understand behaviour from the perspective of the person being studied, often based on interviews

Question 6

Naturalistic observation

Answer 6

A method in which the researcher carefully watches individuals in their normal setting, keeping track of the number and type of certain kinds of behaviours

Question 7

Survey

Answer 7

A qualitative method in which the researcher uses a standardized questionnaire or interview form to collect info from a large number of people

Question 8

Experiment

Answer 8

A qualitative method in which the researcher manipulates one variable while measuring the effect on another variable

Question 9

Longitudinal study

Answer 9

A study, using another data gathering approach, that collects data repeatedly from the same respondents over a period of time

Question 10

Meta-analysis

Answer 10

A statistical method for combining the results of many different studies of the same behaviour

Question 11

Discourse analysis

Answer 11

A qualitative method that analyzes the language in texts such as interview responses, discussions, and essays

Question 12

Transformationism

Answer 12

Biology and environment work together, with neither being more fundamental than the other to an organism’s development
Neither biology or environment can be said to determine reactions to the other

Question 13

Cross-culture research

Answer 13

An examination of a phenomenon in several cultures: enables the researcher to compare cultures, to test the universality of particular behaviours, and to sample the variability of human behaviour

Question 14

Animal research

Answer 14

An examination of nonhuman species: Because selective breeding permits easier control of the genetics of nonhuman animals and because humans’ ethical standards against manipulation of the environment are lower for nonhuman species, researchers can conduct experiments with animals that can not be carried out with people. Results can illuminate the interaction of heredity and environment but generalizing from non-humans to humans is problematic

Question 15

Androcentric Norms

Answer 15

to apply male behaviour as the norm against which to measure females

Question 16

Ethnocentrism

Answer 16

the tendency to apply the assumptions and terms of one’s own culture to other culture

Question 17

Heterosexism

Answer 17

the use of heterosexual relationships as the norm for evaluating all relationships

Question 18

Anthropomorphism

Answer 18

the tendency to interpret animal behaviour in human terms

Question 19

Misogyny

Answer 19

an attitude of dislike and distrust of women

Question 20

Bias and pitfalls in the “Choose a Topic” research step

Answer 20

Employers, colleagues, and funding agencies may discourage the study of certain topics

Question 21

Bias and pitfalls in the “Formulate the Research Question” research step

Answer 21

Possible gender differences may be either overlooked or assumed. Personality characteristics or other individual differences are more likely than social forces to be considered potential influences on gender differences

Question 22

Bias and pitfalls in the “Design the Research” research step

Answer 22

Sex-of-experimenter effects and variations in the way the research context influences males and females may skew results. The choice of participants may reflect sexist assumptions, and the absence of appropriate comparison groups may limit the usefulness of the research. Dependent variables and methods for measuring them must be chosen with care to ensure that they are equivalent for males and females.

Question 23

Bias and pitfalls in the “Analyze the Data” research step

Answer 23

The orientation toward differences, or alpha bias, may lead the researcher to ignore similarities. inadequate analysis may result from the tendencies to focus on differences in average scores and to overlook the overlap between males and females and the pattern of the distribution of results and their variability.

Question 24

Bias and pitfalls in the “Interpret the Data” research step

Answer 24

Faulty generalizations may result from drawing conclusions about human beings from the study of animals, about all people from the study of one sex, and about adult differences from the study of children. Androcentric norms, ethnocentrism, heterosexism, anthropomorphism, and the tendency to assume that biology can explain unexplained gender differences all lead to faulty interpretations

Question 25

Bias and pitfalls in the “Publish the Findings” research step

Answer 25

The publication policies of scholarly journals may lead to the rejection of studies that find no gender difference or that focus on gender similarities. The popular media are likely to oversimplify and dramatize conclusions, and they are most likely to publicize findings either that can be sensationalized or that match their biases