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Biological Anthropology > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

Genetics and Molecular Biology

1
Q

What are proteins important to at a molecular level?

A

Responsible for its shape and nearly all of its functions. Makes up the long chain of amino acids. Can be folded into complex 3D shapes that relate to function. Interact with other types of proteins and molecules.

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2
Q

What function do lipids play on molecules?

A

An organic compound that includes fat, oils, and hormones. They are insoluble in water because they have a head that is hydrophilic and a tale that is hydrophobic. Store energy for the body or communicate between cells.

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3
Q

What function do carbohydrates have on a molecular level?

A

Sugar molecules and serve as energy to cells in the form of glucose.

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4
Q

Nucleic Acids are what?

A

Carry genetic information about a living organism. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and RNAA

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5
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

A single celled organism characterized by the lack of a nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles. Bacteria and archaea.

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6
Q

What are eukaryotes?

A

Single or multi-celled organisms characterized by a distinct nucleus, with each organelle surrounded by its own membrane.

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7
Q

What are organelles?

A

A structure within a cell that performs specialized tasks that are essential for the cell. There are different types of organelles; each responsible for its own task.

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8
Q

What is the microbiome?

A

The collective genomes of the community of microorganisms that humans have living inside of their bodies. They help digest food, boost the immune system, and make vitamins.

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9
Q

Define tissues:

A

A cluster of cells that are morphologically similar and perform the same task.

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10
Q

Phospholipid bilayer

A

A double membrane present in animal cells. The protective barrier is made up of lipids and protein that provide function and structure. such as regulating the passage of ions and molecules.

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11
Q

What is cytoplasm?

A

The jelly-like matrix inside of the cell membrane that contains the organelles and other cellular molecules.

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12
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

An organelle responsible for protecting the DNA and regulating cellular activities. Has a double membrane

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13
Q

What are mitochondrion?

A

An organelle that produces energy for the cell. Has its own genome (mtDNA). Produces ATP.

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14
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate

A

ATP is a high energy compound produced by mitochondria that powers cellular activity.

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15
Q

What is molecular geneticists?

A

They study biological mechanisms responsible for creating variation between individuals such as mutations, cell division, and genetic regulation.

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16
Q

What are mutations?

A

A nucleotide sequence variation from the template DNA strand that can occur during replication. Mutations can also happen during recombination.

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17
Q

What is a Molecular Anthropologist?

A

An individual who uses molecular techniques to compare ancient and modern populations of humans and non human primates.

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18
Q

Ancient DNA (aDNA)

A

DNA that is extracted from anything once living including human, animal, and plant remains.

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19
Q

What are nucleotides?

A

the basic structural component of nucleic acid, which includes DNA (A, T, C, and G) and RNA (A, U, C, and G)

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20
Q

What is a sugar phosphate backbone?

A

A biochemical structural component of DNA it consists of deoxyribose sugars and phosphate molecules.

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21
Q

Define base pairs:

A

Chemical bonding between nucleotides. In DNA adamine bonds with thiamine and cytosine bonds with guanine. In RNA cytosine bonds with uracil. Approx 3billion base pairs in human cells.

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22
Q

What are Histones?

A

Protein that DNA wrap around to assist with DNA organization in the nucleus.

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23
Q

Define chromatin

A

DNA wrapped around the histone complexes. During cell devision chromatin becomes a condensed chromosome.

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24
Q

What are centromeres?

A

A structural feature that is defined as the “center” of a chromosome and creates two different arm lengths. Also refers to the region of attachments for microtubules during mitosis and meiosis.

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25
Q

Define telomeres

A

A compound structure at the end of chromosomes to help protect the chromosomes from degradation after every round of cell division.

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26
Q

DNA replication

A

Cellular process in which DNA is copied and replicated.

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27
Q

Define the cell cycle

A

A cycle the cell undergoes with checkpoints between phases to ensure DNA replication and cell division occur properly.

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28
Q

What is semi-conservative replication?

A

DNA replication in which new genetics are created from an existing template DNA strand.

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29
Q

What is initiation of DNA?

A

Enzymes are recruited to specific spots along the DNA sequence where they begin the process of division.

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30
Q

Elongation of DNA

A

THe assembly of new DNA from template strands with the help of DNA polymesrasis.

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31
Q

Termination of DNA

A

The halt of DNA replication activity that occurs when a “DNA “ sequence “stop” codon is encountered.

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32
Q

What is helicase?

A

A protein that breaks the hydrogen bonds that hold double-stranded DNA together.

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33
Q

What is the leading strand?

A

DNA template strand in which replication proceeds continuously.

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34
Q

What is the lagging strand?

A

DNA template stand that is opposite to the leading strand during DNA replication. This strand is created in several; disconnected sections and other enzymes fill in the missing nucleotide enzymes missing in the gap.

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35
Q

DNA Polymerases

A

Enzyme that adds nucleotides to existing nucleic acid strands during DNA replication. These enzymes can be distinguished by their processivity (e.g. DNA replication).

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36
Q

What is a deleterious genetic mutation?

A

A mutation that increases an organism’s susceptibility to disease.

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37
Q

What is a germ cell?

A

Specialized cell that gametes (sperm and egg cells)

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38
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Diploid cells that comprise body tissues and undergo mitosis for maintenance and repair of tissues.

39
Q

What is a diploid?

A

Organisms that have two sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells. Humans are considered diploid because they inherit one set of chromosomes from each parent.

40
Q

Define homologous chromosomes:

A

A matching pair of organisms where in one chromosome is inhereted maternally and the other chromosome is inherited paternally.

41
Q

What are sister chromatid?

A

During DNA replication, sister chromatid are produced on the chromasome. In cell division, sister chromatids are pulled apart so that two cells can be formed. In meiosis, sister chromatids are also the sight of genetic recombination.

42
Q

What is mitosis?

A

The division of somatic cells that gives rise to two diploid daughter cells.

43
Q

What are gametes?`

A

Haploid cells referred to as an egg and a sperm that will fuse together during sexual reproduction to form a diploid organism.

44
Q

What is meiosis?

A

The process that gametes go to divide. The end of meiosis end in four separate diploid daughter cells.

45
Q

What is genetic recombination?

A

A cellular process that occurs during meiosis I in which homologous chromosomes pair up and sister chromatids on different chromosomes physically swap genetic information.

46
Q

What does haploid mean?

A

A cell organism with one set of chromosomes (n=23). Their genetic composition differs from that of the parents DNA compositions as well.

47
Q

What are aneulploid?

A

A cell with an unexpected amount of chromosomes. A loss or gain of chromosomes can occur during mitosis or meiotic division.

48
Q

Define karyotyping?

A

The microscopic procedure wherein the number of chromosomes in a cell is determined.

49
Q

Define interphase:

A

Preparatory phase of the cell cycle when increased metabolic demand allows for DNA replication and doubling of the cell prior to devision.

50
Q

What is cellular apoptosis?

A

A series of molecular steps that is activated leading to cellular death. Apoptosis can be activated when a cell does not pass check-points during the cell reproduction cycle; however cancer cells have the ability to avoid apoptosis.

51
Q

The Mitotic phase includes what two micro phases?

A

Mitosis and Cytokinesis- both prevalent to forming 2 daughter cells

52
Q

Amino Acids

A

Organic molecules that are the building blocks of protein. Each of the 20 different amino acids has its own unique chemical property. Amino acids chain together form proteins.

53
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Proteins responsible for catalyzing (accelerating) certain biochemical reactions within cells.

54
Q

What is protein synthesis?

A

A multi-step process by which amino acids are strung together by RNA machinery read from a DNA template.

55
Q

What is transcription?

A

The process by which nucleotides are copied (within a cell), resulting in an messenger RNA molecule.

56
Q

Define translation

A

The process by which messenger RNA Condons are read and amino acids are “chained together” to form proteins.

57
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic Acid- single stranded nucleic acid molecule. There are different RNA present within the cell which perform a variety of functions. IE cell signaling and protein synthesis.

58
Q

messenger RNA

A

mRNA- RNA molecule transcribed from DNA. Its tri-nucleotide codons are “read”by a ribosome to build a protein.

59
Q

What is splicing?

A

The process by which mature mRNA are produced. Introns are removed and exons are enjoyed.

60
Q

What is a gene?

A

A segment of DNA that contains protein -coding information and various regulatory and noncoding regions.

61
Q

RNA. polymerase

A

An enzyme that catalyzes the process of making RNA from a DNA template.

62
Q

Define introns

A

Segment of DNA that does not code for proteins.

63
Q

Define Exons

A

Protein coding segment of a gene.

64
Q

What is a ribosome?

A

An organelle in the cell found in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum. Responsible for reading mRNA and protein assemblage.

65
Q

Define codons

A

A sequence that defines three DNA nucleotides that together code for a protein.

66
Q

What are Mendelian Genetics?

A

A classification given to phenotypic traits that are controlled by a single gene.

67
Q

Define phenotype

A

The physical appearance of a given trait.

68
Q

Genotype

A

The combination of 2 alleles that code for or are associated with the same gene.

69
Q

What are allels

A

Gene copies. A nonidentical DNA sequence found in the same gene location on a homologous chromosome, or gene copy, that codes for the same trait but produces a different phenotype.

70
Q

Define heterozygous

A

Genotype that consists of two different alleles. Bb +Bb

71
Q

Define homozygous

A

Genotype that consists of two identical alleles. BB+BB

72
Q

What is dominant?

A

Refers to allele for which one copy is sufficient to be visible in the phenotype

73
Q

Define recessive:

A

Refers to an allele whose effect is not normally seen unless two copies are present in an individual’s genotype.

74
Q

Cell surface antigens

A

Proteins found on the surface of a red blood cell.

75
Q

Antibodies

A

Immune-related proteins that can identify and bind to foreign bodies in the blood such a pathogens.

76
Q

What is codominance?

A

The effects of both alleles in the genetics can be noticed in the phenotype.

77
Q

What is a pedigree?

A

A diagram of family relationships that indicates which individuals may have or carry a certain genetic or phenotypic trait.

78
Q

What is a carrier?

A

In individual that has a heterozygous genotype that is typically associated with a disease

79
Q

Autosomal

A

Refers to pattern of inheritance by which an allele is located on an autosome (non-sex chromosome)

80
Q

X-linked

A

Refers to a pattern of inheritance that is allele is located on an X or Y chromosome. Has a greater affect on male individuals because they only inherit one X- chromosome.

81
Q

Pathogenic

A

A genetic mutation that has a harmful phenotypic disease-causing effect.

82
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

Heterozygous genotype that produces a phenotype that is a blend of both alleles.

83
Q

Define penetrance

A

The prevalence of how often an allele results in an expected phenotype. Some alleles are more penetrant than others.

84
Q

Polygenic traits

A

A phenotype that is characterized by two or more genes.

85
Q

Complex diseases

A

A category of diseases that are polygenic and are also influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors.

86
Q

Genome

A

All the genetic information for an organism

87
Q

Epigenetics

A

Change in gene expression that does not change the underlying DNA sequence.

88
Q

Sequencing

A

A molecular laboratory procedure that produces the order of the nucleotide bases.

89
Q

Genotyping

A

A molecular procedure that is performed to test for the presence of certain alleles or to discover new ones.

90
Q

DNA Methylation

A

Methyl groups bind DNA, which modifies the transcriptional activity of gene turning it “on” or “off”.

91
Q

Epi-genetic profile

A

The methylation pattern throughout a genome– that is, which genes are methylated and which are not.

92
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A

A microbiologic procedure that can make copies of genomic DNA sequences. A small amount is all that is necessary to make millions of copies.

93
Q

Sanger sequencing

A

A process that involves fluorescently labelled nucleotides to visualize DNA at the nucleotide level.

94
Q

Microarray technology

A

A genotyping procedure that utilizes a microarray chip, which is a collection of thousands of short nucleotide sequences attached to a solid surface that can probe genomic DNA.

Biological Anthropology (8 decks)

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