Chapter 2: Theories and Methods of Human Development Flashcards
Theory
an organized set of ideas that helps scientists think about what they observe
Biological perspective
psychological and behavioral development begins with roots in our brain, our genes, and innate instincts
Biological perspective theories
- evolution
- ethological
- epigenetic
Evolutionary theory
all life, and some behaviors, develop and change to adapt to the environment over generations through natural selection
Ethological theory
human behaviors are universal, innate, and gene-based
Epigenetic theory
physical, inborn, genetic characteristics are changed by our environments
Maslow
suggested most people struggle to balance and satisfy needs throughout life; developed a list of what motivates humans
Maslow’s Biological List of Needs from the bottom of the pyramid to the top
- physiological needs
- safety needs
- belongingness and love needs
- esteem needs
- self-actualization
Psychosexual Theory (Freud)
development progresses through five psychosexual stages as unconscious physical urges are mastered
Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)
early experiences and social interaction play a crucial role as people move through eight stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan
Attachment theory (Bowlby; Ainsworth)
close emotional bonds between infants and their caregivers are essential to development
Bowlby
humans have a biological need to be attached and nurtured in early life
Ainsworth
developed and elaborated on the attachment theory
Watson
all babies are born equally capable; children learn everything they know; classical conditioning
Skinner
behavior is more likely to happen with rewards and less likely to occur with punishment; operant conditioning
Social Learning Theory
learning involves thinking and reasoning; the most important part of learning is often other people; social relationships
Bandura
people model behavior and can learn new behaviors through observation and imitation
Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget)
cognitive growth is the result of active world exploration; children’s thinking matures in distinct stages as they actively construct and build what they know
Information processing theory
focuses on the development of thinking and understanding by describing how a person pays attention, remembers, and reacts to the world, similar to how a computer processes information
The cultural perspective (Vygotsky; Rogoff and others)
child learning is based on interactions with other people in a cultural context
Cross-cultural research
focuses on comparing human maturation around the world
Cultural research
identifies variations within communities
Theories of Social Justice
evaluate how social inequality and discrimination affect us and how cultural identity aids in thriving
Scientific Method
multistep process in which scientists evaluate their ideas and find out if they are accurate through collecting and analyzing data
Steps of the scientific method
1- make an observation
2- form a hypothesis
3- collect the data
4- analyze the data
5- share it
Experimental Research
experiment tests the hypothesis that one factor is caused by another
Factors are known as
variables
Independent variable
a factor that is tested to see if it causes change in another variable; can be changed by researcher
Dependent variable
a factor that is measured during the experiment to determine the effect of the independent variable
Traditional display data
- bar graphs
- line graphs
- pie charts
Alternative display data
- maps
- word clouds
- biological figures
Correlational research
researchers gather data and look for relationships between variables but do not manipulate them
Correlation
refers to the statistical relationship between two study variables
Positive correlation
occurs if both variables tend to increase or decrease together
Negative correlation
occurs if one variable tends to increase while the other decreases
Zero correlation
no connection is evident
Case study
is an in-depth analysis of one person, family, or institution’s experience
Ethnography
a longer, richly detailed investigation of everyday life
Longitudinal research
the study of the development of a group of people over time
Cross-sectional research
study that compares development in two or more groups of different ages at one point in time
Cross-sequential research
follows two or more different age groups over time in a combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs
Microgenetic research
studies change as it happens
freud’s ORAL stage of psychosexual development
- birth to age 1
- babies learn how to manage the urge to feed and stimulate their mouth
freud’s ANAL stage of psychosexual development
- about ages 1-3
- toddlers learn to balance the pleasure and challenge of controlling their elimination during toilet training
freud’s PHALIC stage of psychosexual development
- about ages 3-6
- children learn that they can derive pleasure from their genitals and adjust to society’s gender roles
freud’s LATENCY stage of psychosexual development
- about ages 6-12
- children’s sexual drives are temporarily quiet as they transfer that energy into learning and education until puberty
freud’s GENITAL stage of psychosexual development
- about ages 12+
- adolescents can satisfy their sexual desires with romantic partners and take on adult responsibilities at work and in loving relationships
TRUST VS MISTRUST stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
- birth to about 18 months
- the infant’s conflict concerns whether or not the world feels safe
AUTONOMY VS SHAME AND DOUBT stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
-about 18 months to age 3
- toddlers strive to be independent as they learn to walk, talk, and feed themselves
INITIATIVE VS GUILT stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development
- about 3 to 6 years old
- preschoolers are eager to try new things and to be “big”
INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
- about 8 to 12 years old
- by middle childhood. children are ready to work at what their culture values
IDENTITY VS CONFUSION stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
- about 12 to 19
- adolescents’ central task is to actively discover their own identity
INTIMACY VS ISOLATION stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
- about 20 to 39
- young adults begin a search for intimacy
GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
- about 39 to 60
- the focus moves to become generative or productive
EGO INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR stage of erikson’s psychosocial development
- about 60 till death
- reflect on their lives and evaluate their successes and failures
SENSORIMOTOR stage of piaget’s cognitive development
- birth to 2
- infants use their senses and physical abilities to explore the world
PREOPERATIONAL stage of piaget’s cognitive development
- about 2 to 6 or 7
- Young children can communicate with language, use their imagination, and think symbolically
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL stage of piaget’s cognitive development
- about 6 or 7 to 11 or 12
- this stage is about logic
FORMAL OPERATIONAL stage of piaget’s cognitive development
- about age 11 through adulthood
- involves grasping abstract or hypothetical ideas, concepts, and scenarios
validity
a measure or assessment actually measures what it claims to measure
reliability
a particular assessment stays consistent with multiple measurements
replicability
the results of a study can be confirmed or clarified by repeating it with another group of participants
WEIRD
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic cultures
ethology
the theory some human behaviors are universal and innate despite the wide diversity in human beings around the world
psychodynamic perspective
emphasis on how human behaviors are based on satisfying innate and often subconscious, biological needs for connection, protection, and love
schema
each bit of knowledge a person develops
sociocultural theory
observes that culture plays a role in every part of human development
hypothesis
a prediction about what a researcher expects to find from the data
