Chapter 2 Human Body Flashcards
1
Q
4 organs of the urinary system
A
kidney, urethra, ureter, urinary bladder
2
Q
What are 5 ways the urinary system maintains the body’s internal environment?
A
- excrete metabolic waste, toxins, and drugs
- produces erythropoietin (which regulates RBC production) & renin (regulates BP)
- regulates total water and solute concentration
- regulates ion concentration in extracellular fluid
- ensure long-term acid-base balance
3
Q
Besides the kidney, the urinary system includes (5)
A
- nephrons where blood gets filtered through
- ureter: transports urine to the bladder
- bladder: temporary storage of urine
- urethra: tube where urine leaves body
- males urethra coupled with semen secretion
4
Q
What are nephrons?
A
structural and functional units that form the kidney
5
Q
What is the function of the reproductive system?
A
-production of offspring
6
Q
What are the male reproductive organs and what are their functions? (5, 3)
A
- prostate, penis, testis, ductus deferens, scrotum
- testes produce sperm and male hormones (testosterone)
- male ducts and glands aid the delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract
- sperm passes through the ductus deferens, then the prostate gland, picking up water on the way (sperm + water = semen)
7
Q
What are the 5 organs of the female reproduction system and what are their functions?
A
- mammary: for breastfeeding
- ovary: egg and estrogen and progesterone production
(the remaining 3 organs help as sites of fertilization and development of the fetus)
- uterine tube/fallopian tube: where egg moves to the uterus
- uterus: implantation of the egg, where it gets fertilized; where amniotic fluid & placenta formed
- vagina: passageway for birth
8
Q
What are the 3 types of tissues of the muscular system and how are they classified? What nervous systems are associated with each?
A
- voluntary: skeletal; somatic nervous system
- involuntary: cardiac & smooth; autonomic nervous system
9
Q
What does the skeletal system require and what is stored where?
A
- requires energy
- stored as glycogen in the liver
10
Q
What are contractions?
A
-shortening of muscle fibers
11
Q
How many bones are there in the human skeletal system?
A
206
12
Q
What two groups are the skeletal system divided into and what do they consist of?
A
- axial skeleton: long axis of body; skull, vertebral column, rib cage
- appendicular skeleton: upper and lower limbs; girdles attaching limbs to the axial skeleton
13
Q
What is the difference between a compact and spongy bone?
A
- compact: solid bone structure, also called lamellar bone
- spongy: honeycomb-like structure at the center of the bone; they are highly vascular
14
Q
What are osteoblasts and osteoclasts?
A
- osteoblasts make bones
- osteoclasts break down bone
15
Q
What are the 5 functions of the skeletal system?
A
- support/structure
- movement
- mineral storage
- fat storage
- production RBC (hematopoiseis)
16
Q
What 5 components make up a person’s weight?
A
-muscle mass, bone mass, fat mass, tissue mass, water weight
17
Q
What is a BMI (3)? What are its drawbacks? (2)
A
- body mass index
- calculated using height and weight
- predictive of body fat
- does not tell the amount or location of fat (muscle weighs more than fat)
- limited usefulness with certain groups of people
18
Q
What are the BMI numbers?
A
<18.5 underweight 18.5-24.9 normal weight 25-29.9 overweight 30-34.9 obese class 1 35-39.9 obese class 2 40-49.9 morbid obese, class 3 >50 super obese, class 4
19
Q
The more fat mass you have, the more likely to indicate ___. Females have more fat for ___.
Assessing fat in general (2) and in females (2)? What is the optimal fat content of females and males?
A
- having more mass indicative of disease risk
- depends on sex, age, physical activity level
- females have more fat mass needed for reproduction
- make progesterone to regulate ovulation from fat
- optimal fat content of female 20-30%
- males 12-20%
20
Q
What are the 4 ways to measure fat mass?
A
- skin-fold test
- underwater weighing
- bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA)
- dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
21
Q
Skin-fold test (2)
A
Using a caliper to measure the thickness of skin and compares it to standards to assess body fatness.
-low accuracy
22
Q
Underwater weighing
A
person weight in chamber and in water
23
Q
Bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA) (4)
A
- fat slows down the passage of electricity through the body.
- the rate at which electricity travels determine body composition
- how gyms/scales measure them
- the worst way to measure BMI
24
Q
Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) (4)
A
- used to measure bone density and fat content
- low dose x-ray beams pass through the body and the amount of energy absorbed is dependent on the body’s content of bone, lean tissue mass, and fat mass
- using standard math formulas, fat content accurately estimated
- need to be careful of radiation
25
What does the central nervous system consist of and what are its functions?
- brain: control center
| - spinal chord: autonomic reflexes
26
What critical body function is associated with the Nervous and Endocrine Systems? What is it components?
Homeostasis
-balance, equilibrium
Variable: something that trying to maintain. something that an be measured. setpoint trying to reglate
ex. blood glucose levels, pH, BP, Ca level, body temp
27
What are the 3 components of the peripheral nervous system? What are their functions?
Nerves
-helps communicate with the central nervous system
Somatic nervous system
-voluntary, skeletal muscle
Autonomic nervous system
- automatic
- flight or fight: what happens to the body when exercise. Blood vol and pressure increases, more blood flow to the skeletal muscles, decrease blood flow to the GI tract
- rest and digest: more blood flow to GI tract, constrict vessels to skeletal muscles
- neurotransmitters: chemical messengers of the nervous system, go neuron to neuron
- effectors what you want to control (the muscle or gland)
ex. epinephrine/norepinephrine, adrenalin/noradrenaline
28
What are the 2 categories of the nervous system?
central & peripheral
29
What is the function of the endocrine system and what are the 2 gland categories? what are the function of glands?
-regulate homeostasis with the nervous system
(endocrine slower than nervous system)
-exocrine: have ducts
Ex. salivary glands
-endocrine: ductless, produces and releases hormones to the bloodstream
30
What are hormones? (1) What are their functions (4)
-chemical messangers screted and released into the bloodstream by glands
- regulate the digestive system
- regulate hunger and appetite
- influence appetite changed during a women's menstrual cycle in pregnancy
- regulate body's reaction to stress, suppressing hunger & digestion
31
What are the 11 glands of the endocrine system?
hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, kidney, adrenal, pancreas, testes, ovaries
32
What is the location of the Hypothalamus? What is also called? What is the function of the Hypothalamus? Give 2 examples.
- in the brain
- also called the neuroendocrine organ
-bridges the nervous and endocrine system to regulate homeostasis (controls both nuerotransmitters and hormones)
Ex 1. Oxytocin (putosin)
Ex. 2 Vasopressin (antidieuretic hormone) constric blood vessels to increase BP. Dieuretics make you pee, so lose water. Antidieuretics retains water, so Blood vol goes up. Then BP goes up.
*both r produced in hypothalamus, stored in the pituitiary gland*
33
How is the pituitary gland separated? What are their common hormones?
- anterior: growth hormones, prolactin
| - posterior: oxytocin & dieuretics
34
What 2 hormones are produced by the pineal gland?
- melatonin (sleep regulatin)
| - tryptophan (essential amino acid)
35
Thyroid hormone (2) What is it made of?
- regulates metabolism
- hypothyroidism: not enough thyroid hormone, difficulty losing weight
-made from iodine
36
What hormones are produced in the Parathyroid? What is its function? What are the 3 passageways?
-parathyroid hormone: regulates Ca levels; released when blood Ca levels low
1. hormone goes to bones to stimulate breakdown of Ca to release into the bloodstream
2. Go to kidneys, where promote reabsorption (take into blood) of Ca. Goes to urine and reabsorbed from there
3. Activated vitamin D required for reabsorption of Ca in the intestine
37
Thymus
helps activate immune cells
38
What are 2 hormones released from the Kidney?
- release Renin, which helps regulate blood vol and pressure
| - epo from kidneys go to bone marrow to stimulate the formation of RBC
39
What hormone is produced in the adrenal gland? What is its function?
- Renin helps release aldosterones that target kidneys to retain Na in the body
- water follows Na and blood vol & pressure goes up
40
What 2 hormones are produced by the pancreas? Function? (3, 2)
Insulin: high blood glucose level.
- help take glucose into tssue so can use/store energy
- anabolic
Glucagon: low blood glucose
-catbolic
41
What hormone is produced in the testes? Function? (2)
- testosterone helps develop seconondary male characteristics (muscle growth, hair)
- sperm production
42
What hormones are produced in ovaries?
-estrogen helps regulate menstrual cycle
43
The immune system is linked to what body system? What is the function of the immune system? What ae the classic markers of inflammation? (5) They need to be controlled. What happens when they are not? How is obesity linked to inflammation?
-linked to the lymphatic system. traps pathogen/toxins in the lymph
Inflammation
- need it to be controlled
- classical markers inflammation: redness, heat, swelling, pain, changes in WBC
- even as small as exercise
- when out of control, immune disorders that destroy tissue because the immune system don't turn off
- obesity is a constant state of constant inflammation so why such a strain on the body
44
Antigen v antibody
antibodies recognize foreign antigens
45
What are the cells of the immune system? (4) What do they do?
1. Macrophage: engulf pathogens and destroys it
2. Mast cells: recognize pathogens (like antibodies). then they release chemicals to recruit other immune cells
3. antibodies recognize foreign antigens
4. WBC: basophil, B cell, T cell, Eosinophil
46
WBC? What are the types of WBC?
-B cell, T cell, Basopil, Eosinphil
47
Macrophage
engulf pathogen and destroys it
48
What are the 5 basic chemical taste? Why can we taste them?
- can taste them because we have chemical receptors in mouth
- sweetness (fructose), sour (acidic, H ions) , bitter (basic/alkaline, dries out mouth), savory (umami, meat products), salty (NaCl)
49
True or false
The digestive system is a flexible, muscular tube that extends 26 feet.
true
50
3 function of the digestive tract
- breakdown of food
- absorption of nutrients
- secretion of waste
51
chemical vs mechanical digestion. Name the 5 organs associated with chemical and 4 associated with mechanical digestion
- chemical: saliva, enzymes. breaks bonds at the molecular level (salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine)
- mechanical: physical breakdown (mouth, small intestine & large intestine)
52
What are the monomers of carbs, lipids, protein?
- glucose
- fatty acids and glycerol
- amino acids
53
Primary (5) v secondary (4) digestive organs
- primary: foods that travel through - oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
- secondary: liver, gallbladder, pancreas, salivary glands
54
Process of the digestive tract: mouth (3) What are the 2 enzymes secreted in the mouth? What does this food mixture form?
1. Chew food (mechanical & chemical digestion)
- 2 enzymess: amylase (digestion carbs) & salivary/lingual lipase (digestion fats)
- formation of the bolus (the broken down food w/saliva)
55
Esophagus (2)
- transport of food only, not breakdown
| - epiglottis closes off trachea
56
Stomach Does mechanical digestion occur here? Chemical digestion occurs with ___ (2). Bolus mixed with stomach content is called ___. What are the 2 layers of the GI tract (and 3rd layer in stomach)?
- stomach pummels food (mechanical)
- chemical digestion by pepsin & HCl/gastric acid of proteins
- bolus mixed with stomach content: chyme
- most of GI tract has 2 layers: circular & longitudinal. stomach has a 3rd layer: oblique
57
Where does the majority of digestion & absorption occur? Where does it get its bicarbonate? Where does it get bile? (2) Bile is made of ___.
- where the majority of the digestion & absorption occurs
- 3 segments: duodenum, jejunam, ileum
- duodenum the receiving end for digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas (bicarbonate) and liver (bile)
- bicarbonate used to neutralize acid & digestive enzymes
- get bile from the liver and gallbladder. bile made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
- bile made of fat (and helps break down fat)
58
What occurs in the large intestine? (2) What is the mixture absorbed water called?
- also called colon/bowels
1) cecum: where ileum meets large intestine
2) ascending colon
3) transverse colon
4) descending colon
5) sigmoid colon: where starts to curve
6) rectum
7) anus
- where fiber breakdown due to microflora occurs
- water absorption
- mixture absorbed water called bulk (feces)
59
Peristalsis vs Segmentation They are both chemical/mechanical digestion?
- both a type of mechanical digestion
- peristalsis: movement of food through GI tract. Like squeezing the tube from mouth to rectum
- segmentation: breaking down of food into smaller segments
60
Microbes in digestive tract ferment ___. It also breaks down ___ (3).
- ferment indigestiable fibers
| - break down uningested protein, bile component, and drugs
61
What happens when stomach acid not neutralized by bicarbonate from the pancreas? (3)
- ulcers when any part of GI tract get eaten away by acid
- peptic ulcers in stomach
- reflux disease causes esophagus ulcers
62
Within how many hours is food digested?
in 24 to 48H 90% of carb, lipid, protein gets absorbed
63
Peristaltic waves (3)
- series of wave-like muscle contraction that gets larger as move from esophagus to the large intestine
- help propel and mix food
- begins with swallowing of mouth
64
absorption of water-soluble vs fat-soluble nutrients. Which requires active transport? Does it enter the lymphatic or circulatory system? What is the opening where food passes through called? Which surface (basal/apical) is it?
Fat soluble
- easily cross phospholipid bilayer of cells, so passive transport
- first enters the lymphatic system, then the circulatory system
Water-soluble
- difficult to get into cell so active transport, requiring energy
- lumen is the opening where food passes through, it is the apical surface. where nutrients come into contact. absorption of nutrients out of the gI tract lumen and into the circulatory system
- Na K pump
65
Mechanism of the Na K pump
- breaks down ATP to pump Na outside of cell
- primary active transport, pumps Na outside cell and K into the cell
- falling Na level in cells open up membrane to let Na in. while doing so, brings in the glucose, amino acids. vitamis (water soluble substances)
- once water soluble nutrients enter cell, released into blood stream
66
What are the functions of brush border enzymes? (3)
- fingerlike brushes that line the small intestine
- made of villi and microvilli that increase SA
- slow down the movement of food through GI tract
- the final step of digestion: enzymes on brush border (brush border enzymes) catalyze digestion into monomers
67
What are in lymph vs blood vessels?
Lymph
- prducts of fat digestion
- fat soluble vitamins
Blood
- products of carb and protein digestion
- water soluble vitamins, all minerals
68
Cells: structure and function
- cells carry out different functions based on structure
ex. sperms have flagella because then they can move
ex. skeletal muscle cells allow movement. which requires a lot of energy so has a lot of mitochondria. also need lots of protein so have lots of ribosomes
69
What is the plasma membrane? What is its function? What takes place in the ICF?
- phospholipid bilayer that separates ECF & ICF
- fluid is where are chemical reactions take place (mainly ICF)
- helps maintain shape
70
Mitochondria (2)
- where ATP production occurs,
| - location of cellular respiration
71
Nucleus (3)
- where DNA contained
- DNA contain codes for protein production
- largest organelle
72
Ribosomes
protein synthesis
73
lysosome (2)
- break things down
| - contain enzymes and acids
74
endoplasmic reticulum (3)
- rough and mooth ER
- rough: has ribosomes; protein synthesis
- smooth: lipid modification and Ca storage
75
Peroxisome (3)
- detoxification: getting rid of free radicals/toxic gases that are unstable
- turns free radicals into water
- stabilize self by destabilizing other parts of cells, including DNA
76
Golgi apparatus
- traffic director. determines fate of protein
- 3 fates:
- protein used
- protein secreted/released somewhere in body (exocytosis)
- protein broken down because unnecessary
77
central dogma of biology (4)
DNA -> DNA (replication
-DNA polymerase
DNA -> RNA (transcription)
-RNA polymerase
RNA -> protein (translation)
-ribosome
-affects how body handles nutrients
78
gene (4)
- sequnce of DNA that codes for a specific protein
- complete set of genes in each cell
- gene variation influenced by nutrients
- gene variation can be inborn error of metabolism
79
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue? (4)
- smooth: GI tract
- skeletal: voluntary
- cardiac: heart
-smooth and cardiac part of autonomic nervous system
80
What is the function of the connective tissue? (2)
- connects everything together
| - most abundant and diverse type of tissue
81
2 types of epithelial tissue.
What is the apical and basal layer present on lining tissue?
What are the 2 types of glandular epithelial tissue?
What are 2 examples of organs that have both endocrine and exocrine tissues?
1. Covering/lining
- apical layer: exposed surface
- basal layer: bottom portion that anchors epithelial tissue to connective tissue
- described by number and shape of cell (simple/stratified, squamous/cuboidal/colmunar)
2. Grandular
- endocrine: ductless, releases hormones to bloodstream
- exocrine: secretions released into duct, passageways from one location to another
Some are both!
- pancreas release insulin to blood and has a pancreatic duct connecting to the small intestine and secretes digestive enzymes there
- ovaries/testes produce estrogen/testosterone but excrete eggs/sperm
82
Organs of the cardiovascular system (3)
heart, blood, vessels
83
Where do the 2 major types of fluids in the body travel in?
- blood: travels in arteries, veins, capillaries
| - lymph: travels in own vessel
84
Volume of blood, % body weight
```
5 liters (1.3 gallons)
8% body weight
```
85
4 components of blood, solute vs solvent
1. RBC: transports O2/CO2
2. WBO: fights infections
3. Platelets: blood clotting. helps maintain thickness/viscosity of the blood
4. Plasma
- solute: solid added to liquid. RBC, WBC, platelets, vitamins, amino acids, etc.
- solvent: what is in most abundance. majority of plasma water
86
capillaries vs veins vs arteries
- capillaries: tiny blood vessels,
- where gas/nutrient/waste exchange take place
- arteries: take blood away from heart.
- Efferent vessels
- eventually run into capillaries
- veins: blood towards heart
- afferent vessels
87
Atria vs Ventricles (3)
- heart broken into 4 chambers. 2 top atrias and 2 bottom ventricles
- atria recieving chambers
- ventricles are the pumps. discharge chamber
88
3 blood circuits (2, 3, 2)
1. pulmonary: CO2 rich blood goes to Lung to pick up more O2
- R ventrical -> Lung -> L Latrium
2. Systemic: heart to tissue
- L ventricle -> tissure -> R atrium
- L ventricle most muscular region because sends blood all the way to the toes
3. Coronary: heart to heart
- O2 rich blood returns to heart to give O2
89
How & where are nutrients picked up and where do they go? (3)
-nutrient absorbed into the blood through the GI tract
-the nutrients are then taken to the liver: hepatic portal system
(fat travels through the lymph)
-nutrient waste eliminated through kidney as a part of the urinary system
90
What is the Lymphatic fluid consist of? Where are they formed? What happens there? What travels in it?
- formed from the plasma of the blood
- formed at the capillaries, where plasma exchange occurs
- contains bacteria/toxins to be destroyed
91
the nutrient pathway of the lymphatic system (4)
fat-soluable nutrients picked up at the GI tract, which then goes to the capillaries, then travels the lymphatic system to the heart, then pumped to the liver
92
Primary organs of the lymphatic system
- bone marrow: production of RBC and WBC
| - thymus: where T cells made
93
What is the function of the secondary organs of the lymphatic system and what organs are they? (7)
- where WBC fights/are active and destroy harmful toxins/bacteria
- lymph nodes, spleen, tonsil, Peyer's patches, appendix
94
2 zones of the respiratory system
conducting and respiratory zone
95
Conducting zone (3)
- transport gas to and from gas exchange sites (O2 in, CO2 out)
- cleans, warms, and humidifies air
- includes the nose, nasal cavity (primary), pharynx, larynx, trachea, tertiary bronchi (secondary)
96
respiratory zone
-structures directly involved in gas exchage
97
respiratory zone (3)
- structures directly involved in gas exchange
- tertiary becomes terminal bronchi that join the respiratory bronchiole (smallest) which then leads to an alveolar duct, opening into a cluster of alveoli here capillaries are wrapped around
- microscopic
