Chapter 2: Evolution of Emotions

Question 1

evolution

Answer 1

key concept in biology that explains how species develop and it also sheds a light on emotions

Question 2

emotional expressions

Answer 2

Darwin provided evidence for his theory by highlighting the similarities in emotional expressions between humans and other mammals

Question 3

3 processes of evolution (Darwin)

Answer 3

• superabundence
• variation
• selection

Question 4

superabundence

Answer 4

animals and plants produce more offspring than how many can survive into adulthood

Question 5

variation

Answer 5

each offspring is somewhat different than others and these differences are passed on by heredity

Question 6

selection

Answer 6

characteristics that allow for better adaptation to the environment are more likely to survive and be passed on to future generations

Question 7

selection pressures

Answer 7

at the core of natural selection are selection pressures, which are environmental factors or forces that influence the survival and reproductive success of organisms within a population

Question 8

genes

Answer 8

are one element of evolution; they pass during reproduction from one generation to the next. two kinds of sexual selection pressure determine who reproduces and what genes are passed on

Question 9

intersexual selection

Answer 9

occurs when individuals of one sex (usually females) select mates based on specific traits

Question 10

intrasexual selection

Answer 10

occurs when individuals of the same sex (usually males) compete with each other for access to mates

Question 11

fitness

Answer 11

the likelihood of surviving and reproducing successfully

Question 12

adaptations

Answer 12

are generally base traits that allow for the individual to respond effectively and efficiently to specific pressures and allow for survival and reproduction

Question 13

physcial robustness (fit and healthy)

Answer 13

genes are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations when humans mate with physically robust individuals

Question 14

gender differences in mate preferences

Answer 14

• given the cost that women sustain during pregnancy and in raising children, they are more likely to be attracted to potential partners with status and resources that could aid them in this kind of intensive work
• men look for women at their best reproductive age and feel attraction in response to cues of youth

Question 15

three adaptations to selection pressure of rasining offspring

Answer 15

• humans have deep emotional responses to baby-like facial cues that, allow for their continuous devotion to infants, despite the costs of raising a child
• an infant’s scent can also promote positive emotions in caregivers
• parents often feel powerful protecting and caring feelings in response to hearing an infant’s vocalisation

Question 16

how do humans genes program us?

Answer 16

through emotions:
- equipped with the emotion of fear, we protect our bodies
- being emotionally drawn to nutritious food allows us to build our bodies
- being interested in sex enables our genes to reproduce and pass on to the next generations
- feeling love for our children allows us to take care of them
our emotions are the means by which genes replicate

Question 17

field of epigenetics

Answer 17

have revealed that there are imporant biomechemical processes that turn genes on and off, depending on the characteristics of the environment an individual is in. genes on their own dont determine your emotional tendencies - they have their effects only in particular social environments

Question 18

the environment of evolutionary adaptation

Answer 18

humans adapted to their environment over 6 million years. it was in this environment of evolutionary adaptedness that specific emotions developed, helping individuals cope with selection pressures.

Question 19

insights from modern hunter-gatherers

Answer 19

contemporary hunter-gatherer societies can be studied to find clues that can help us understand the social pressures and patterns that gave rise to human emotion. the adaptedness of the human environment was highly social

Question 20

insights from nonhuman primates

Answer 20

another source of evidence about our environment of human adaptedness is the study of the lives of our closest primate relatives—chimpazees and their relatives, the bonobos

Question 21

Jane Goodall

Answer 21

a primate researcher who, by observing chimpanzees in their natural habitats, documented many chimpanzees emotion-like responses such as:
- fear of an aggressive interaction
- anger in a fight
- annoyance of a bothersome juvenile
- mourning following the death of a parent

Question 22

attchement

Answer 22

the first social dimension is attachment between infants and their mothers. chimpanzee mothers and infants stay close to each other

Question 23

hierarchies

Answer 23

chimpanzees live in hierarchies which provide heuristic solutions to problems like the distribution of resources and the labour required for collective endeavours

Question 24

affiliation

Answer 24

another social dimension. caregiving is central to the affiliation patterns among nonkin: chimpanzees and bonobos often become intensively distressed when they witness harm to other group members

Question 25

human attachment

Answer 25

research shows that human attachment patterns differ significantly from those of our primate relatives. humans are more monogamous

Question 26

hierarchies in humans vs primate relatives

Answer 26

in chimpanzees and bonobos, hierarchies are mostly vertical, with clear alpha male and female, while for humans it is hard to identify alpha male and females and societies ranks are more equal

Question 27

levelling mechanisms

Answer 27

early human hierarchies were shaped by levelling mechanisms, social-emotional processes that preserve more egalitarian relations

Question 28

language

Answer 28

involves symbolic utterences (words) that are combined according to certain rules (syntax) to convey meaning (semantics). it is the most distinct characteristic that sets humans apart

Question 29

ability to cooperate

Answer 29

another profound and basic characteristic of humans is our ability to cooperate. this ability can be categorized as the centre of being human

Question 30

Esther Herrmann et al.

Answer 30

conducted a study comparing human infants (2.5 years) with chimpanzees (3-21 years) and orangutans (3-10 years). they had to perform 2 kinds of tasks:
- finding hidden rewards, using tools to retrieve rewards, and discrimination of quantity (physical task)
- seeing a person solve a problem and trying to solve it the same way, following the gaze of a person, being able to make and receive communicative gestures, and understanding what a person was trying to do in a task which the person completed unsuccessfully (social task)

Question 31

Esther Herrmann et al. findings

Answer 31

for the physical task humans and chimps were about 69% correct and orangutans 59%. for the social task humans, infants were 74% correct and chimps or orangutans could not complete the task

Question 32

joint goals vs individual goals

Answer 32

humans developed more joint goals compared to chimpanzees, who engage in more individual goals

Question 33

collective group goals

Answer 33

after establishing joint goals, humans created collective group goals that encompassed shared beliefs and actions relevant to entire social groups, including customs like morality and culture

Question 34

attachment process

Answer 34

infants develop psychological strength through the attachment process with their caregivers

Question 35

secure base

Answer 35

the mother is a secure base—a dynamic that continues into adolescence and beyond. emotions are central to the development of attachment between children and their caregivers

Question 36

pair-bonding (Bowlby)

Answer 36

the long-lasting relationships between specific human females and specific human males

Question 37

affectional bonds (Bowlby)

Answer 37

the attachment relationship of infancy created a template for later intimate relationships

Question 38

social hierarchy

Answer 38

hierarchies can be based on many qualities like power, status, authority, and social class. in humans, social hierarchies are discussed through emotions