Chapter 2 Flashcards
Hindsight bias
The tendency for people to
exaggerate how much they could
have predicted an outcome after
knowing that it occurred
Observational method
The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior
Ethnography
The method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have
Interjudge reliability
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual
Archival analysis
A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and newspapers)
Correlational method
The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed
Correlation coefficient
A statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another—for example, how well you can predict people’s weight from their height
Surveys
Research in which a representative
sample of people are asked (often
anonymously) questions about
their attitudes or behavior
Random selection
A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample
Experimental method
The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people’s responses)
Independent variable
The variable a researcher changes
or varies to see if it has an effect
on some other variable
Dependent variable
The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variable will depend on the level of the independent variable
Random assignment to a condition
A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants’ personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions
P-value
A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant (trustworthy) if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and not the independent variables studied
Internal validity
Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions
External validity
The extent to which the results
of a study can be generalized
to other situations and to other
people
Psychological realism
The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life
Cover story
A description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose and is used to maintain psychological realism
Field experiments
Experiments conducted in
natural settings rather than in the
laboratory
Replications
Repeating a study, often with
different subject populations or in
different settings
Meta-analysis
A statistical technique that
averages the results of two or
more studies to see if the effect of
an independent variable is reliable
Basic research
Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity
Applied research
Studies designed to solve a particular social problem
Cross-cultural research
Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised
Evolutionary theory
A concept developed by Charles
Darwin to explain the ways in
which animals adapt to their
environments
Natural selection
The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particular environment are passed along to future generations; organisms with those traits are more likely to produce offspring
Evolutionary psychology
The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection
Informed consent
Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance
Deception
Misleading participants about the
true purpose of a study or the
events that will actually transpire
IRB
A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by the IRB before it is conducted
Debriefing
Explaining to participants, at the
end of an experiment, the true
purpose of the study and exactly
what transpired
