Chapter 2 Flashcards
dogmatism
the tendency for people to cling to their assumptions
empiricism
the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
scientific method
a procedure for finding truth by using empirical evidence
theory
hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
hypothesis
a falsifiable prediction made by a theory
Why can theories be proven wrong but now right?
theories can have data that is consistent with its explanation but no amount of data can prove a theory to be 100 percent correct. Theories can be proven wrong because data that is not consistent with the theory’s explanation proves it wrong
empirical method
a set of rules and techniques for observation
humans are
complex, variable, and reactive
methods of observation
allow us to determine what people do
methods of explanation
allow us to determine why people do things
the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observations is known as
a. complexity
b. dogmatism
c. empiricism
d. scientific research
c
which of the following is the best definition of a hypotheses?
a. empirical evidence
b. a scientific investigation
c. a falsifiable prediction
d. a theoretical idea
c
when people know they are being studied, they don’t always behave as they otherwise would. This is known as
a. reactivity
b. complexity
c. variability
d. methodology
a
to observe means to
use one’s senses to learn about the properties of an event or an object
operational definition
a description of a property in concrete, measurable terms
instrument
anything that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers
generate an operational definition that has validity
design an instrument that has reliability and power
validity
the goodness with which a concrete event defines a property.
reliability
the tendency for an instrument to produce that same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing
power
an instrument’s ability to detect differences or changes in the property
demand characteristics
those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as the think someone else wants or expects
naturalistic observation
a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
what are the properties of a good operational definition and good instrument?
validity is a property of a good operational definition, and reliability and power are properties of a good instrument
what are some of the limits of naturalistic observation?
some of the things that psychologists want to observe don’t occur naturally
some of the things that psychologists want to observe can only be gathered from direct interaction with a person
how to avoid demand characteristics?
people are less likely to be influenced by demand characteristics when they are allowed to respond privately
measure behaviors that cannot easily be controlled
keep people who are being observed from know the true purpose of the observation
why is it important for subjects to be “blind”
when people are “blind” to the purpose of the observation, they can’t behave the way they think they should behave because they don’t know how they should behave
observer bias
~expectations can influence observations
~expectations can influence reality
double-blind observation
an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
when a measure produces the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing, it is said to have
a. validity
b. reliability
c. power
d. concreteness
b
aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should are called
a. observer biases
b. reactive conditions
c. natural habitats
d. demand characteristics
d
in a double-blind observation,
a. the participants know what is being measured
b. people are observed in their natural environments
c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
d. only surveys are used
c
variables
properties whose values can vary across individuals or over time
correlation
variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other
natural correlations
the correlations observed in the world around us
third-variable correlation
two variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable
third-variable problem
a causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of a third-variable correlation
experiment
a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
the best way to understand how an experiment eliminates all possible third variables is by examining its two key features:
manipulation and random assignment
manipulation
which involves changing a variable in order to determine its causal power
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated
experimental group
the group of people who experience a stimulus
control group
the group of people who do not experience that stimulus
dependent variable
the variable that is measured
random assignment
random selection of participants allows both the experimental group and the control group to differ in only one way
self-selection
a problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he or she will be included in the experimental or control group
why can’t we allow people to select the condition of the experiment in which they will participate?
we want to be sere that they is one and only one difference between the children in our study who are and are not exposed to media violence, then their inclusion in the experimental or control groups must be randomly selected
random assignment
a procedure that lets chance assign people to the experimental or the control group
significance
we can calculate the odds that random assignment has failed each time we use it. If there is less than a 5% chance that they would have found differences between the experimental and control groups then such differences are statistically significant (unlikely to have been caused by a third variable)
internal validity (after applying manipulation, random assignment, and significance)
an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships
we should define variables in an experiment
as they are defined in the real world
external validity
an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been modified in a normal, typical, or realistic way
population
a complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured
sample
partial collection of people drawn from a population
what is the difference between a population and a sample?
a population is a complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured. A sample is a partial collection of people drawn from a population
case method
a procedure for gathering scientific information by studying a single individual
random sampling
a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
why is nonrandom sampling not a fatal flaw?
- sometimes the similarity of a sample and a population doesn’t matter
- when the ability to generalize an experimental result is important, psychologists perform new experiments that use the same procedures with different samples
- sometimes the similarity of the sample and the population is a reasonable starting assumption
the scientific method produces
empirical evidence
why do we have so much trouble thinking critically?
- we tend to see what we expect to see
2. we tend to ignore what we cant see
people tend to look for evidence that confirms their beliefs
.
the first step in critical thinking is to
doubt what you see, consider what you don’t
science is the ultimate
democracy
when we observe a natural correlation, what keeps us from concluding that one variable is the cause and the other is the effect?
a. the third-variable problem
b. random assignment
c. random sampling
d. statistical significance
a
a researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes toward global warming to people of both genders and of all ages who live all across the country. The dependent variable in the study is the participant’s
a. age
b. gender
c. attitudes toward global warming
d. geographic location
c
the characteristic of an experiment that allows conclusions about causal relationships to be drawn is called
a. external validity
b. internal validity
c. generalization
d. self-selection
b
when people find evidence that confirms their beliefs, they often
a. tend to stop looking their beliefs
b. seek additional evidence that disconfirms them
c. consider what they cannot see
d. think critically about it
a
what are three features of ethical research?
- respect for persons
- research should be beneficent (should attempt to maximize benefits and reduce risks to the participant)
- research should be just (should distribute benefits and risks equally to participants without prejudice toward a particular group of individuals
psychologist ethical code
informed consent freedom from coercion protection from harm risk-benefit analysis deception debriefing confidentiality
informed consent
a written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail
debriefing
a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study
informed consent…
a. is only required when testing animals
b. requires that people must know everything about a study before agreeing to participate
c. can only be given by an adult
d. is usually obtained orally rather than in writing
c
what is debriefing?
a. a promise of confidentiality
b. the requirement to share data with other scientists
c. the prohibition against fabricating results
d. a description of the true nature and purpose of a study that is given to a participant after the study has ended
d
what are psychologists ethically required to do when reporting research results?
a. report findings truthfully
b. share credit for research
c. make data available for further research
d. all of the above
d
