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Psychological Science > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the definition of science?

A

It is carefully collecting, testing, and gaining knowledge.

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2
Q

What is ‘truth’ in science?

A

It is something that is objectively true or that it exists regardless of if we perceive it or not.

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3
Q

What is Epistemology?

A

A branch of philosophy that is related to knowledge.

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4
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A clear predicted statement that aims to explain a phenomenon.

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4
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

The hypothesis that says the original hypothesis will not work.

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5
Q

What is an authoritarian epistemology?

A

The ‘because I said so” approach and can apply to authority figures like parents, judges, or religious leaders - not all of it is bad

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6
Q

What is a rationalism epistemology?

A

Logical reasoning approach to knowledge but is not always right. relates to the post hoc fallacy

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7
Q

What is the ‘post hoc fallacy’?

A

when the first event caused the second ex seeing a cat in road causes the driver to swerve and wreck.

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8
Q

What is the Empiricism epistemology?

A

It is data driven and can be verified by observation or experience rather than theory.

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9
Q

Which epistemologies are used in science?

A

rationalism and empiricism

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10
Q

What is the first of the four main steps of the scientific method?

A

identifying questions of interest

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11
Q

What is the second of the four main steps of the scientific method?

A

formulating an explanation or a theory

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12
Q

What is the third step to the four main steps of the scientific method?

A

Carrying out research designed to support or refute the theory. remember that scientists never prove a theory and it always possible to refute one

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13
Q

What is the fourth step to the four main steps of the scientific method?

A

The theory is supported or weakened based on the results.

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14
Q

Why are replicable results important to a study?

A

So, then the study can be replicated somewhere else to further confirm the theory.

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15
Q

What counts as replicable results?

A

ones that someone can approximately attain.

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16
Q

What is meta-analysis used for?

A

To try to even out or take account for small variations across replications of a study.

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17
Q

What is done in meta-analysis?

A

the results across all of the studies are combined like they are all one large study.

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18
Q

Textbook Q : Suppose several studies report some result, whereas, several others do not . The studies vary in size, quality, and results. How do we decide whether the results support the hypothesis?

A

This is when a meta-analysis is done to combine all the results like it is one big study to see the effects.

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19
Q

What is a theory?

A

Broad explanations of and predictions of concerning a phenomenon of interest. It also must be refutable for it to be scientific.

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20
Q

What does falsifiable mean?

A

It means that a theory is stated in such a clear and understandable way that anyone could see or understand what evidence could stand against it.

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21
Q

What is the “burden of proof”?

A

It means that a researcher is responsible for having evidence to support their hypothesis/ theory.

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22
Q

What is the principle of parsimony?

A

The idea that people tend to stick to what they know and avoid anything that is new or unknown.

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23
Q

Textbook Question: The term ‘replicable’ applies to which step in a research study?

A

A) the hypothesis
B) the results
C) the interpretation
D) the researcher

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24
Textbook question: What does a meta-analysis do?
a) it reexamines the results of a disputed study b) it looks for deeper, hidden meanings c) it considers possible conclusions from data not yet collected d) it combines the results from many studies
25
Textbook questions: A search for parsimony is a search for what?
A) Falsifiability B) Simplicity C) Replicability D) Deep Meaning
26
Textbook questions: The claims for ESP lack two essential aspects. What are they?
A) Hypothesis and data B) Egocentrism and perspicacity C) Replicability and Parsimony D) Structuralism and functionalism C
27
What is basic research?
It is research that focuses on theoretical knowledge. ex thinking and learning
28
What is applied research?
It is research that focuses on practical problems. ex how to improve study habits.
29
Textbook question: Is a study of cultural differences an example of basic or applied research?
It is an example of basic research because it is not looking for a clear solution but it's results could spur applied research.
30
What is an operational definition?
a definition that is used to measure something that is usually not measurable.
31
Textbook question: Which of the following is an operational definition of forgetting?
A) The process whereby a memory trace decays in the brain B) An inability to remember something that you once knew C) What happens when you don't study hard enough D) The difference between scores on on memory tests at two times
32
What is a convenience sample chosen for?
Because they easy subjects to use in the experiment since they are close by ex. students on college campuses
33
What is a representative sample?
It is one that represents the population through a variety of demographics like age or race
34
What is a random sample?
It is a random sample of a population. So the members of the population are chosen at random like a lottery or for jury duty.
35
What sample is the ideal one to achieve for a study?
random because it increases the probability or the results accurately representing the population but it is also the hardest to achieve
36
What is cross cultural sample?
A sample that includes participants from multiple cultural backgrounds
37
Textbook Question: Suppose at a shopping mall you interview every person who walks by. What kind of sample is it, random, convenience, or representative?
Convenience because they are the people who are the easiest to access.
38
What is a naturalistic observation?
Observing what would happen normally. ex a psychologist observing how people smile at each other when they pass each other on the street.
39
What is a case history?
It is a description of someone's abilities and limitations when it comes to someone with a rare condition, but it is limited to only what the researcher finds important to report
40
What is a survey?
A study of people's habits, beliefs and perspectives through the form of a questionnaire.
41
What does correlation mean?
It is a measure of the relationship between two variables.
42
What does a correlation coefficient mean?
a mathematical estimation of the relationship between two variables.
43
Textbook question: Which indicates a stronger relationship between two variables a +0.50 or a -0.75 correlation?
The -0.75 shows a stronger correlation because it is closer to one.
44
What does it mean if a correlation is near zero?
The two variables are not related to each other or at least one of them was not measured correctly.
45
What is illusionary correlation?
An illusion that the relation between two events that have a weak or little correlation to each other
46
Does correlation mean causation? Why or why not?
No, it does not mean causation. Because while it shows that the two events are related it does not mean that it can explain why it is caused.
47
Textbook Question: Suppose we find a 0.9 correlation between a student's attendance and score on the final exam. What conclusion can we draw?
we can say that class attendance could be used to predict student's final grade. but we cannot say that it was the sole cause because it could just be that students with higher motivation are more likely to attend class and study. so regardless that student might have studied enough to earn that score.
48
What is the independent variable?
The variable in the experiment that the researcher controls.
49
What is the dependent variable?
it is the variable that the researcher measures to determine the outcome
50
What happens to the experimental group?
They are the group that gets the treatment that is being tested
51
What happens to the control group?
They are the group that does not get the treatment to see what normally happens
52
What is random assignment and why is it used?
It is to randomly assign the participants to a control or experimental group to make sure it is as random as possible ex. drawing names out of a hat
53
Textbook Question : A basketball coach makes the freshman players practice two hours longer than the older players and finds that they are improving more than the upperclassman players. What is the independent variable in the experiment and what is the main flaw in the experiment?
The independent variable is the amount of time that the freshman are training. But the main flaw in the experiment is that the players were not randomly assigned to their position so it might just be that the freshman had more room for improvement to begin with.
54
What is experimenter bias?
It is when the researchers bias in the study can play a role in affecting the results.
55
What is a blind observer and how is it useful to maintaining the authenticity of the experiment?
A blind observer is when someone is recording the data without knowing the researcher's predictions.
56
What is a single-blind study?
this is when either the researchers or the participants are unaware of who received what treatment
57
What is a double-blind study?
that is when both the researchers and the participants are unaware of who received the treatment
58
How can demand characteristics affect the authenticity of a study?
it is when the participants are aware of what the study is about and try to alter their behavior to prove the hypothesis to be true
59
Textbook question: Which of the following would an researcher try to minimize or avoid in their study? Falsifiability, independent variables, dependent variables, blind observers, or demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics are the only ones that would need to be avoided or minimized from a study.
60
What is the issue with a before and after study?
it does not include a control group to see what would have normally occurred
61
What are descriptive statistics?
they are the mathematical summary of results
62
What is the mean in statistics?
the sum of scores divided by the average of scores. ex mean is the average
63
what is normal distribution of scores?
the symmetrical frequency of scores that fall near the mean
64
what is the median?
it is the middle score of the results
65
what is mode?
the number that shows up the most in the results
66
Textbook question: determine the mean, median, and mode of: 4,3,8,3,9,1,3,5,4,10.
Mean 5, Median 4, and mode 3
67
What is inferential statistics?
making statements about a larger group based on results from a smaller group
68
What does it mean if the results are statistically significant or statistically reliable?
It means that those results were very unlikely to be a result of pure chance.
69
What is the probability amount that is considered significant?
It is < 0.05
70
What is the importance of 95% confidence intervals?
The importance of the 95% confidence interval is the range where the true mean is in the data
71
Textbook Question: Should we be more impressed with results when the 95% confidence interval is larger or small? Should we be more impressed if the p value is large or small?
We should be more impressed with a smaller 95% confidence interval because that means it is closer to a true mean. We should also be more impressed with a smaller p value because it means that the results were less likely affected by chance.
72
Why is hypothesizing after the results are known (HARKing) problematic?
Because you're pretending to predict something when you already had the results.
73
What is p-hacking and what is wrong with it?
it is looking at data in different ways to find something that is statistically significant
74
What is informed consent and why is it important?
It is when the participants sign a form saying they are aware of what might happen for participating in the experiment and what their rights are. It is important because the experiment needs to be ethically cleared.
75
Textbook question: Which of the following is an operational definition of grouchiness?
A) the opposite of happiness B) The opposite of friendliness C) A persistent sensation of feeling displeased with one's life D) The percentage of time someone is frowning p49
76
Textbook question: Why is a random sample preferable to a representative sample?
A) It is easier to achieve B) Everyone has a equal chance of being selected C) The sample matches the population in percentage of men and women, old and young D) The size of the sample becomes unimportant p 49
77
Textbook question: What does it mean if scores on some test are negatively correlated with performance in school?
A) The test is useless or worse for predicting performance B) Scores on this test have been declining over time C) Students with low scores on the test tend to do well in school D) younger students get lower scores than older students
78
Textbook question: If a researcher finds a low correlation between happiness and honesty, one explanation is that the two variables are unrelated. What is another possible explanation?
A) the researcher studied a random sample of people B) the measurements of honesty were inaccurate C) honesty leads to a decrease in happiness D) happiness leads to a decrease in honesty
79
Textbook question: suppose researchers find a negative correlation between time playing sports and grades in school. Which conclusion, if any, can we draw from this result?
A) playing sprots decreases school performance B) students who concentrate on studies do not have time for sports C) One of the variables was poorly measured D) we can draw none of these conclusions p 49
80
Textbook question: A researcher has one group watch horror movies while another group watches a comedy, and measures changes in their attention over the next few hours. What is the independent variable?
A) The varying types of people in the two groups B) the level of attention C) the type of movie D) the number of hours before measuring attention p 49
81
Textbook question: Which of the following reduces the influence of experimenter bias?
A) Demand Characteristics B) independent variable C) A double-blind study D) Representative Samples p 49
82
Textbook Question: A psychologist measures people's mood before the start of therapy and finds an improvement after a few weeks of therapy. What is lacking from this study?
A) a hypothesis B) A control group C) A dependent variable D) descriptive statistics p 49
82
Textbook Question: An experimenter tests 15 vitamin supplements, finds one of them produced improved attention, and publishes only that finding. What error was committed?
A) HARKing B) p-hacking C) Demand Characteristics D) lack of informed consent p 49
82
Textbook Question: A researcher provides different diets to prisoners at several institutions, without telling them, and tests changes in behavior. What error was made?
A) HARKing B) P-hacking C) Demand Characteristics D) lack of informed consent p 49
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Psychological Science (13 decks)

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