Chapter 2 Flashcards
Alexander II, the 'Tsar Reformer'
How many serfs did Alexander II emancipate in 1861?
51 million
What social motives may Alexander II have had by emancipating the serfs?
On the influence of his tutor, Vasily Zhukovsky, Alexander’s travels around the Empire, and the influence of Duke Konstantin and the Milyutin brothers
What was the name of the circle of the progressive nobles?
Party of St Petersburg Progress
How may the serfs have influenced emancipation?
The increase in peasant uprisings may have influenced Alexander II
What factor, however, was the main catalyst for emancipation?
The humiliation and inefficiences of the Crimean War
What reforms marked the very beginning of Alexander’s reign?
He released political prisoners, pardoned the Decemberists and relaxed censorship
How were privately owned serfs treated differently during emancipation?
Privately owned serfs were emancipated in 1861, while state serfs received freedom in 1866
What were redemption payments?
Money in exchange for their freedom, which were to be paid over 49 years, and still meant they stayed in the mirs
What were volosts?
A series of peasant communities consisting of several villages of hamlets, between 200 and 3000 people
How did kulaks benefit from emancipation?
They built up extra land or sold their allocations, often obtaining passports to improve their living standards
How did many peasants feel cheated by emancipation?
The small allotments were increasingly divided and the mirs were too traditional
What percentage of the peasantry produced a surplus?
Only 50%
What factors led to violent outbreaks in the countryside?
Loss of former benefits, restrictions on travel, redemption payments and resentment of kulaks
What were the military reforms introduced by Dmitry Milyutin?
Conscription was made compulsory for all classes, service was reduced to 25 years, punishments were less severe, medical care was established, modern weaponry was introduced, military colleges were set up and mass-army education campaigns
How successful were the military reforms?
While these were significant improvements, problems of supply and a largely aristocratic leadership continued
What were zemstvas?
A system of elected local councils at district and provincial levels. Nobility mostly dominated
What powers were zemstvas given under Alexander II?
To improve public services, develop industrial projects and administer poor relief
In what ways were the zemstvas powers limited?
They had no control over state and local taxes and provinicial governors not only took control of law and order, but could also overturn zemstvo decisions
How was the new judiciary system modelled on the west?
There was a single system of local, provincial and national courts, the accused was presumed innocent until proven guilty, criminal cases were heard before barristers and a jury and courts were opened to the public and freely reported
How was the new judicary system flawed?
Lawyers often criticised the regime, new juries often acquitted the guilty out of sympathy
In what ways did the judiciary system remain the same throughout the Empire?
Trial by jury was never established in Poland, and church and military courts were excluded from the reforms
How did education change under Alexander Golovnin?
Universities could appoint their own staff, power was transferred to the zemstva, primary and secondary schools were extended, schools were no longer based on class or sex
How did these educational reforms threaten the regime?
The new independence increased the number of radical and militant thinkers
How did Alexander II initially relax censorship?
Restrictions on publishers were reduced, foreign publications could be permitted and newspapers could now comment on the government
How much did the number of books grow by from 1855 to 1894?
From 1020 in 1855 to 10,691 in 1894
How did Alexander II attempt to reform the church?
He attempted to eliminate corruption within the Russian Orthodox Church but his later reign removed these changes