Chapter 17: Toward a New Worldview in the West

Question 1

Famous Scientists of the Age of Reason and their ideas (7)

Answer 1

1. 16th-18th century CE, Europe
2. Copernicus developed the Copernican Hypothesis which stated that the sun was the center of the solar system as opposed to the earth being the center; it was deeply criticized by religious leaders, especially Protestants.
3. Brahe made detailed observations of planets and stars using the naked eye but had a lack of education in mathematics which prevented him from using his data.
4. Kepler formulated three famous laws of planetary motion which he proved mathematically.
5. Galileo Galilei challenged old ideas about motion. He developed the experimental method and the law of inertia.
6. Isaac Newton united the experimental and theoretical-mathematical sides of modern science. Developed the law of universal gravitation.
7. Descartes developed Cartesian dualism (The premise of Descartes that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter).
   8: CC: Contrast figures of the Enlightenment with those of The Great Awakening (early 18th century) such as Edwards or Whitefield. Contrast figures of the enlightenment to those of romanticism (early 18th century) such as Rousseau, Hugo, or Beethoven.
   9: COT:

Question 2

Causes of the Scientific Revolution (5)

Answer 2

1. 16th-18th century CE, Europe
2. Development of the medieval university which consisted mathematics, astronomy, and physics along with philosophy.
3. Scientific progress was stimulated by the Renaissance by using the recovery of ancient texts to encourage scholars to reform old thought. Furthermore, Renaissance patrons funded scientific investigations best exemplified by the Medici family and Galileo.
4. Navigational problems for long sea voyages during the age of overseas expansion were critical in the development of new instruments (ex: telescope, barometer, etc.) and determining latitude.
5. New ways of obtaining knowledge was also a factor of the scientific revolution. Francis Bacon contributed by developing empiricism (a theory of inductive reasoning that called for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation as opposed to reason) while Descartes developed Cartesian dualism (the idea that all of reality could be educed to mind and matter).
6. CC: Contrast the causes of enlightenment with the causes of romanticism (such as rejection of Napolean, heartlessness of bourgeois liberalism, and urban industrial society).
7. COT:In the time from the 1300s to the 1800s, ideology, scientific knowledge, and religious understanding changed from superstitious ideas to rational and factually supported theories while views of religion stayed the same.

Question 3

Effects of science on social roles (3)

Answer 3

1. 16th-18th century CE, Europe
2. the rise of modern science created a new social group: the international scientific community. The group consisted of scholars who shared values and professional institutions. The community was closely tied to the government because the government supported research but the community soon developed a critical attitude toward established authority.
3. Women were largely excluded from academics and were refused memberships to scientific communities because they lacked academic credentials; however, there were few exceptions, best exemplified by Cavendish, Conway, and Astell who contributed to Descartes’ mind-body dualism.
4. CC: Compare to women’s roles in Japan during the Edo Period (18th century) specifically, both civilizations did not include women in academics (for the most part). There were a few exceptions in both societies, for example in Japan some girls from peasant families may have received formal schooling, but were thought incapable of learning Chinese characters.
5. COT:

Question 4

Famous Philosophes of the Enlightenment (6)

Answer 4

1. 16th-18th century CE, Europe
2. Pierre Bayle concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt (skepticism).
3. John Locke demonstrated that the human mind was a blank tablet at birth and was determined by education and social institutions (tabula rasa)
4. Montesquieu argued for a separation of powers-the belief that political authority should be shared instead of being focused on one person or institution.
5. Voltaire wrote works that praised English institutions and scientific progress. His writing challenged Catholic Church and Christian theology.
6. Rousseau attacked rationalism as destroying and believed women should be passive in social life. Furthermore, Rousseau established general will, which was the collective desires of the citizenry as opposed to the desires of the individual.
7. CC: Compare to Jesuits advanced view on astronomy (17th century, China). Contrast Philosophes with Japanese entertainment during the Edo Period (18th century). Entertainment included tea houses , theaters, and houses of prostitution.
8. COT:

Question 5

Madame du Chatelet (2)

Answer 5

1. Early 18th century CE, Europe
2. An educated woman from the high aristocracy who helped spread Newton’s ideas in France by translating his Principia and also influenced Voltaire.
   CC: Compare Chatelet to….?Contrast Chatelet and her role with other women’s roles throughout the world such as women in China, Japan, or India. (Almost all women in this time were confined to the domestic sphere.)
   COT:

Question 6

Reading revolution (2)

Answer 6

1. 18th century CE, Europe
2. Transition in Europe from a society where reading was patriarchal and communal (ex: A father reading aloud to an audience) and reading material consisted of religious texts to a society where literacy was common and therefore people read to themselves and reading material was broad and diverse.
3. CC: Compare to Chinese literacy in classics, poetry, and music. Compare to Japanese dramas and puppet plays in the 17th century. (Specifically “Five Women Who Loved Love” and “The Life of an Amorous Man” which were both written by Ihara Saikaku.)
4. COT: a shift from “intensive” reading and re-reading of very few texts to “extensive” reading of many, often only once. ( Think of reading the Bible vs reading the newspaper)

Question 7

Salons (2)

Answer 7

1. 16th-18th century CE, Europe
2. Regular social gatherings held by wealthy women in their homes where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.
3. CC: Contrast Salons from Japanese entertainment houses (17th century) where Geishas (talented women who could sing, dance or read poetry) would perform for men.
4. COT:

Question 8

Diderot’s encyclopedia (3)

Answer 8

1. 18th century CE, Europe
2. In the encylopedia, science and industry was of the highest importance, religion and immortality were questioned, and intolerance, injustice, and out-of-date social institutions were openly criticized.
   3, The dictionary was of great significance because it summarized the worldview of the Enlightenment.
3. CC: Compare to Zheng He’s book “The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores” which included data on plants, animals, peoples, and geography. (Note: 15th century, comparison is weak because it is outside of the time period of Enlightenment.)
4. COT:

Question 9

Rationalism (2)

Answer 9

1. 16th-18th century CE, Europe
2. rationalism - the general opinion between Enlightenment thinkers that nothing should be accepted on faith and everything should be examined on secular examination
3. CC: Compare OR Contrast to Renaissance Humanism (14th-16th century, humanists were both secular and religious, their main focus was on the individual. Examples of humanists: Michelangelo, Medici family (ice cream family), and Erasmus.
4. COT:

Question 10

Enlightened Absolutism (3)

Answer 10

1. 18th century CE, Europe
2. The rule of monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.
3. Examples: Frederick II, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II
4. CC: Contrast enlightened absolutist monarchies with EITHER liberal governments such as France during the French Revolution (late 18th century) OR democratic governments such as the United States during the American Revolution (late 18th century).
5. COT: Enlightened Absolutism in FRANCE changed over time in that it went from being strictly absolutist (under figures such as King Louis XIV-late 17th century- early 18th century) to having increased liberal ideas under Robespierre (mid 18th century-late 18th century).

Question 11

Partition of Poland (4)

Answer 11

1. Late 18th century CE, Eastern Europe
2. A way to satisfy Austria, Russia, and Prussia’s desire for expansion without fighting.
3. Proposed by Frederick the Great that Poland be divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
4. Resulted in the destruction of the Polish republic.
5. CC:
6. COT:

Question 12

Moses Mendelssohn (4)

Answer 12

1. 18th century CE, Germany
2. proved that Enlightenment ideas did not have to oppose Jewish thought and religion. Example: “On the Immortality of the Soul” (1767)
3. Mendelssohn represented the German Enlightenment which supported established religion in contrast to the French Enlightenment, which attacked religion.
4. Became an example of how a Jew who came from the ghetto to the dominant culture.
   CC: Compare to humanists (14th century-18th century) who believed in secular and religious ideas. Contrast to French Enlightenment (16th-18th century) which was based primarily on science and faith in human reason.
   COT:

Question 13

Progress (2)

Answer 13

1. 16-18th CE century CE, Europe
2. Progress - the goals of the Enlightenment thinkers to create better societies and better people by discarding outmoded traditions and embracing rationalism.
3. CC: Contrast to romanticism OR The Great Awakening ideals.
4. COT:

Question 14

Frederick II of Prussia (8)

Answer 14

1. Mid to late 18th century CE, Eastern Europe
2. Known as an enlightened absolutist
3. Invaded Silesia
4. Made Prussia gain more political and territorial supremacy over other German states
5. Allowed philosophical and religious freedom
6. Promoted the advancement of knowledge which led to improvements in schools and permitted scholars to publish their findings
7. Simplified laws, outlawed torture, and made judges decide cases in a quick and impartial manner.
8. Condemned serfdom
9. CC: Compare to other Absolutist rulers such as Louis XIV (late 17th-early 18th century, France), or Theresa (mid to late 18th century, Austria). Contrast Frederick ll to figures in favor of democratic government such as Adams, Paine, or Jefferson (18th-19th century).
10. COT:

Question 15

Catherine the Great of Russia (11)

Answer 15

1. Mid to late 18th century CE, Russia
2. Deposed Peter III in order to become empress of Russia
3. Support philosophes, such as Diderot
4. Tried to westernize Russian culture and architecture
5. Westernize the Russian elite
6. Made a new law code
7. Restricted the practice of torture and allowed limited religious freedom
8. Repressed a Cossack uprising
9. Gave nobles absolute control over serfs and peasants
10. Expanded serfdom into Ukraine
11. Gave nobles exemptions from taxes and state service
12. CC: Compare Catherine the Great’s efforts to westernize Russia with both China and Japan in the 17th to 18th century (note: China and Japan respected western ideas, but did not respect western religious views. Therefore you could make this a change or contrast.)
13. COT:

Question 16

Maria Theresa (7)

Answer 16

1. Mid to late 18th century CE, Austria
2. Absolutist monarch
3. Introduced reforms to make Austria a more efficient state
4. Limited the papacy’s political influence
5. Strengthened the central bureaucracy, minimized political differences, and revamped the tax system.
6. Reduced the authority of lords over serfs and peasants
7. Sought to improve the lot of the agricultural population
8. CC:Compare to other Absolute rulers such as Frederick ll of Prussia (mid to late 18th century). Contrast Theresa’s absolute monarchy to EITHER the French Revolution (and its liberal ideas) OR the American Revolution (and it’s democratic ideas & figures-Paine, Jefferson, Adams).
9. COT:

Question 17

Joseph II (5)

Answer 17

1. Late 18th century CE, Austria
2. Enlightened absolutist
3. Supporter of change
4. Abolished serfdom
5. Decreed that all peasant labor obligations be converted into cash payments
6. CC:
7. COT:

Question 18

Tabula Rasa (3)

Answer 18

1. Late 17th century CE, Europe
2. Belief that all ideas were derived from experience and that the human mind at birth was like a blank tablet on which the environment wrote the individual’s understanding and beliefs.
3. Created by John Locke
4. CC: Compare to other enlightened philosophers such as Bayle (late 17th to early 18th century), or Spinoza (early 17th to late 17th century.) Contrast to romantic figures such as Goya (painter), Beethoven, Motzart, Hugo, Austen, ect.
5. COT:

Question 19

Empiricism (3)

Answer 19

1. 17th-18th century CE, Europe
2. A theory of inductive reasoning that called for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation
3. A by-product of the scientific revolution
4. CC: Compare to figures of the Enlightenment (Newton, Locke) and their theories (primarily based on science.)
5. COT:

Question 20

General Will (2)

Answer 20

1. Early to late 18th century CE, Europe
2. A political concept, first set forth by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, that refers to the collective desires of the citizenry as opposed to individual interests
3. CC:
4. COT:

Question 21

Public Sphere (3)

Answer 21

1. 18th century CE, Europe
2. An idealized intellectual environment that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where members of society came together as individuals to discuss issues relevant to society, economics, and politics of the day.
3. Voltaire and Rousseau were one of the major intellectuals and influential figures in the public sphere
4. CC: Compare to the Chinese court under Kangxi (17th century) which discussed western ideas such as writing, architectural illustrations, calendars, watches, medicine, weapons, and paintings.
5. COT:

Question 22

Skepticism (3)

Answer 22

1. 17th-18th century CE, Europe
2. The premise that nothing could be proven beyond a reasonable doubt
3. Most clearly stated by French Huguenot Pierre Bayle
4. CC:
5. COT: