Chapter 10: Civilizations of the Americas, 2500 B.C.E-1500 C.E.

Question 1

Huitzilopochtli and the Flower Wars (4)

Answer 1

1. Date:16th C.E.; Aztec society in Mexico (its capital Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco).
2. a) Aztecs sacrificed war captives to appease the war god, Huitzilopochtli (symbolized the sun- source of all light), Aztecs also built a temple in Tenochtitlan for Huitzilopochtli.
   b) Aztecs were engaged in Flower Wars, which were meant to obtain war captives for sacrifices to please Huitzilopochtli.
3. similar: SImilar to the religious pressures for imperial expansion in Incan society.
4. contrast: Different from religions that did not require constant warfare such as Buddhism or Hinduism.

Question 2

Aztec social roles (Tecuhtli, Maceualtin, Tlalmaitl) (9)

Answer 2

1. 14th-16th C.E.; Mexica (Aztec sociey)
2. a) Tecuhtli
   - provincial governers who excercised full political, judicial (pertaining to judges and courts), economic, and military authority on Aztec emeperor’s behalf i.e. maintaining order, settling disputes, overseeing the cultivation of land, and making sure tribute was paid, as well as leading troops in wartime.
   b) Maceualtin
   - majority of Aztec population; consisting of ordinary citizens and members of the working class.
   - they performed agricultural, military, and domestic services.
   c) Tlalmaitl
   - consisted of landless workers and serfs who provided agricultural labor, paid rents, and were bound to the land
   - they could perform military service if called upon.
   d) Slaves
   - most were captured in war or kidnapped from enemy tribes.
   - Aztec convicts or people who plotted against the emperor could also be enslaved.
   - people in debt voluntarily sold themselves into slavery.
   - slaves could possess goods, save money, buy land and houses, slaves, and purchase their own freedom.
   C/C:
   a) contrast: Unlike European serfs, Aztec serfs could perform military duties.
   b) similarity: Asian, European, and African slaves were also mostly prisoners captured in wars or kidnapped from enemy tribes.
   c) contrast: Unlike European slaves, Mexica (Aztec) slaves could possess goods, save money, buy land and houses, slaves, and purchase their own freedom.
   d) similar: Similar to Islamic society in that slaves were permitted to buy their freedom and the each empire’s people were more humane to slaves; the Qur’an accepted slavery but encouraged the Islamic people to allows slaves to buy their freedom.
   e) Change: In the 14th century there was no social hierarchy in Aztec society, but by the 16th century their was a strict social hierarchy.

Question 3

Mesoamerica

Answer 3

1. 26th B.C.E.-16th C.E.; present day Mexico and Central America
2. a) The staple food throughout the highlands of Mesoamerica was maize
   b) Olmecs (oldest early advanced Amerindian civilization) created the first society with cities between 16th and 14th B.C.E.
3. similar: river valley civilizations (Harrapan/Indus, Egyptian, Huang/yellow river valley) were the first civilizations to create cities in India, China, etc.
4. change

Question 4

Milpa farming and vertical archipelagos( cluster of islands)

Answer 4

1. 31st B.C.E-present day; worldwide
2. a) A system of effective agriculture used throughout Mesoamerica that relied on crop rotation and the planting of multiple crops in a single field.
   b) Vertical archipelago- High-altitude valleys were connected to mountain life and vegitation to form single interdependent agricultural systems.
3. C/C: Similar to systems used by North American Indians
4. cont.: a) In the 14th century B.C.E. milpa farming and vertical archipelagoes spread to Peru and Uruguay. In the 13th century B.C.E. milpa farming and vertical archipelagoes spread to southwest North America. In the 12th century milpa farming and vertical archipelagoes spread to Europe, Africa, and Asia.
   C/C:
   Change/Cont.:

Question 5

Mound cultures

Answer 5

1. ?-26th B.C.E.; worldwide
2. a) Characterized by earthen sounds used for various purposes (burial, homes).
   b) Large mound structures for political and religious purposes began to be built in South America before North America.

Question 6

Norte Chico

Answer 6

1. 26th B.C.E.; Peru
2. a) Characterized by early use of cotton and pyramids.
   b) People who lived in Norte Chico relied on fishing and traded with inland cities.
   c) Cotton was also used to make khipus ( system of knotting used by Peruvian cultures to store important information).
   d)cont.: People in Norte Chico developed religious ideas that were adopted by later Andean cultures (Chavin).
   Change/cont.:

Question 7

Khipu

Answer 7

1. 23th B.C.E.-present day; Peru
2. a) Used by early Peruvian cultures to store information such as census and tax records, and native history
   b) Incas made elaborate khipus to record financial and labor obligations, out put of fields, population levels, land transfers, and other numerical records.
   C/C: Similar to other methods of storing information such as the Popul Vuh in MAyan society.
   Change/cont.: cont.

Question 8

Chavin culture

Answer 8

1. 13th B.C.E.-7th C.E.; originated in Andes Mountains, South America
2. a) Earliest cities in that region.
   b) Chavin culture disappeared from Peru during the 4th century B.C.E.
   c) Chavin cults arose because they were needed to support a large population; the cult may have been designed to promote fertility and harvests.
   d) Chavin Culture was geared toward agricultural production in order to sustain the population.
   C/C: Similar to Mayan and Aztec cultures in that agriculture played a large role and influenced the rest of the vulture.
   Change/cont.:

Question 9

Olmec society

Answer 9

1. 16th-4th B.C.E.; Mesoamerica
2. a) Oldest of early advanced Amerindian civilizations.
   b) Olmecs wanted to record time which led them to the development of a writing system.
   c) Adequate rainfall allowed for the construction of drainage; irrigation systems led to abundant harvests.
   d) Authoritarian rule led to the creation of extensive public works projects, including altars, temples, pyramids, and tombs.
   e) Olmecs began the tradition of building monumental stone sculptures.
   f) sim.:The Olmecs were similar to the Aztec and the Incas in that they all practiced human sacrifice to appease their gods.
   dif:
   g) change: Olmecs went from no social hierarchy to a rigid and more complex social hierarchy.

Question 10

Mayan society

Answer 10

1. 4th-10th C.E.; Mesoamerica
2. a) Mayans (highly developed culture centered in the Yucatan peninsula) created intricate writing system.
   b) Mayan society depended on agriculture.
   c) Public fairs for trading merchandise accompanied important religious festivals.
   d) Terrace farming was developed to capture rainwater and to increase soil fertility resulting in agricultural production of cotton, maize, cacao.
   f) During the 9th century C.E. the Mayans abandoned their cities, possibly because of civil war, internal conflict, northern invasions, or natural disasters (true reason unknown).
   g) sim.: The Incas were similar to the Mayans in that the Spanish conquerors destroyed the written records of both societies.
   e) contrast: The mayans possessed…?

Question 11

Toltec state

Answer 11

1. 8th-12th C.E., Teotihuacan
2. a) Toltecs (descendent to Teotihuacan- a confederacy) admired the culture of their predecessors and sought to absorb and preserve it.
   b) Under Topiltzin (r. 980-1000) the Toltecs extended their reign over most of central Mexico.
   c) After the reign of Topiltzin drought led to crop failure and the Chichimecas (the Nahua peoples of Mexico) attacked the borders in waves.
   d) When the last Toltec king committed suicide in the 12th century C.E., the Toltec state collapsed.
   C/C:
   similarity: The Toltec confederation was similar to the Holy Roman Empire, a weak union of states, in that both sought to preserve tradition and culture of the past.
   contrast: Different from societies that were centralized under a dynamic government such as the Sui dynasty of China.
3. Change/Continuity: ?

Question 12

Mississippian society

Answer 12

1. 9th-16th C.E., North America (illinois)
2. a) The people of the Mississippian society were mound builders.
   b) The largest mounds served as burial chambers for leaders and women and men who were sacrificed in order to assist their leader in the afterlife.
   c) Leaders had religious responsibilities and managed long distance trade and gift giving.
   d) Exchange of goods was not perceived as a form of commerce but as a mean of showing respects and of establishing bonds among diverse groups.
   e)Sim.: Hopewell society, which built mounds for similar uses (burial, shelter etc.)
   Change/cont.:

Question 13

Anasazi and Hopewell societies

Answer 13

1. 4th-10th C.E., Mesoamerica-(Anasazi)
   3rd B.C.E.-7TH C.E., -Mesoamerica-(Hopewell)
2. a) People from Anasazi (native american culture) were well-known for their constuction of different methods of shelter in the region. (i.e. stone cliffs etc.)
   b) Drought, deforestation, and soil erosion led to a decline in Anasazi culture by increasing warfare between towns.
   c) The Hopewell society was a mound building Native American culture.
   d) Some mounds were burial chambers for priests, leaders, and other high-status individuals or for thousands of average people.
   d) Others were platforms for larger houses of important people.
   e) Mound building was a way to honor gods, to remember the dead, and to make distinctions between burials of leaders and common folk.
   C/C:
3. The Hopewell society was similar to the Mississippian society in their use of mounds.
4. Continuity/Change: ?

Question 14

Hohokam society

Answer 14

1. 4th B.C.E.-?, Mesoamerica
2. a) The Hohokam culture was centered around the Gila river in Arizona.
   b) Used a system of agriculture that relied on irrigation trenches,dams, and terraces to cultivate their arid (dry) land.
   c) Drought, deforestation, and soil erosion led to a decline in Hohokam culture by increasing warfare between towns.
3. Sim: The Hohokam society declined in the same way the Anasazi society did & used complex agricultural systems, similar to almost all Mesoamerican societies.
4. Continuity/Change: ?

Question 15

Popul vuh

Answer 15

1. 4th C.E-present day, Mesoamerica
2. a) Aka: ‘‘Book of Council.’’
   b) The Popul Vuh was a collection of mythological narratives and dynastic histories that constitutes the primary record of the Maya civilization.
   C/C: 1. The Popul Vuh was similar to the Bible in Judeo-Christian tradition, both gave the view of the creation of the world, only the Popul Vuh gave the Mayan view of the creation of the world.
3. Continuity/Change: ?

Question 16

Tenochtitlan

Answer 16

1. 14th-present day as Mexico City
2. a) Tenochtitlan was a large and prosperous Aztec capital
   b) Tenochtitlan had 4 highways that connected it with the mainland, bridges stood at intervals.
   c) Walls surrounded the city itself, Tenochtitlan was highly defensible and was capable of resisting prolonged siege.
   d) Large aqueducts (bridges) carried pure water from distant springs and supplied fountains and water for agriculture.
   e) Sim.: Olmec and Mayan civilizations in methods of maintaining sufficient agriculture.
   Change/Cont.: change

Question 17

Mita

Answer 17

1. 15th-16th C.E., Mesoamerica
2. A draft rotary system that determined when men of a particular village performed public works.
   Sim.: Systems of the Qin or Sui Dynasty which required men to work on large construction projects such as the Great Wall or Grand Canal.
   COT: cont.

Question 18

Civil war between Huascar and Atauhualpa

Answer 18

1. 16th-17th C.E., Mesoamerica
2. a) When the Incas, Huayna Capac, and his sons Atauhualpa and Huascar fought eachother to win the throne.
   b) Atauhualpa defeated Huascar but on his way to his coronation at Cuzco Atauhualpa encountered Pizarro and his men and Atauhualpa was killed.
3. the civil war served to weaken Incan society and made it easily conquerable by the Spanish.
4. CC: compare to other dynastic conflicts: War of the Roses, War of the Three Henry’s, and others in Muslim societies.

Question 19

Pacahuati Inca

Answer 19

1. 15th C.E., Mesoamerica
2. a) Under him Inca rule expanded through warfare to Ecuador and Peru.
   b) Pacahuati Inca made Quechua the official language of the entire Inca empire.
   C/C: Pacahuati Inca was similar to Aztec emperors like Montezuma who extended his empire through warfare.
   difference:
   Change/cont.:

Question 20

Teotihuacan society

Answer 20

1. 4th-10th C.E., Central Mexico
2. a) Artwork suggests a theocratic government–priests were crucial to the survival of society– kept calendar and scheduled planting and harvesting.
   b) Agricultural laborers lived outside the city, Teotihuacan was a commercial center for trade.
   c) At the center of the city stood the pyramids of the sun and moon, in lesser temples natives and outlanders worshipped the rain god and Quetzalcoatl.
   d) In the 8th century C.E. less developed people from the southwest burned Teotihuacan and the city-state fell apart.
   e) Sim: Egyptians, Qin/Sui Dynasty in grand building projects, such as the Great Pyramids, Great Wall, and Grand Canal, respectively.

Question 21

Moche society

Answer 21

1. 2nd-9th C.E., northern Peruvian coast
2. a) The Moche people developed complex irrigation systems for agricultural development.
   b) War provided victims for human sacrifice.
   c) The Moche culture is distinguished by a rich and diverse pottery industry
   C/C: The Moche society was similar to the Toltec state because both were small city-states rather than one unified state.
   Continuity/Change: ?

Question 22

Aztec society

Answer 22

1. 14th-16th C.E., central valley of Mexico
2. a) Aztecs believed that gods made the world work through personal sacrifice.
   b) War came to be seen as a religious duty to Mexicas (Aztecs) through which nobles and occassionally commoners and honored gods gained prestige and aquired wealth.
   c) The Aztecs controlled their growing empire by sacrificing prisoners seized in battle, by taking hostages from among defeated people to prevent future revolt, and by demanding from subject states an annual tribute of people to be sacrificed to Huitzilopochtli.
   C/C: Contrast: Aztecs controlled their subject peoples through terror while the Incas governed through imperial unification.
   Change/cont.: Priests continued to play a central role in society through the empire times.

Question 23

Incan society

Answer 23

1. 15th-16th C.E., Peru
2. a) The Incan people were a small militaristic group that came to power by conquering surrounding groups and establishing one of the most impressive empires in the world.
   b) The Incas believed their ruler descended from the sun god and that health and prosperity of the state depended on him.
   c) Royal descendants as a group managed his land and sources of income for him and used revenues to care for his mummy, maintain his cult, and support themselves.
   d) The government of the Incas was led by the military elite; armies were made up of conquered people; forcing people into submission by taking hostages.
   C/C: The Incas were similar to the Aztecs in that they both gave their priests a lot of authority over decision making.
   Change/cont.: