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Old Classes > Chapter 16- Muscle and locomotion > Flashcards

Chapter 16- Muscle and locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

How do protozoans and primitive algae move?

A

They more by beating cilia or flagella

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2
Q

Each cilia and flagella of all eukaryotic cells possess what type of basic structure?

A

A cylindrical stalk of 11 microtubules- 9 paires microtubules arranged in a circle with 2 single microtubules in the center.

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3
Q

How do flagella acheive movement?

A

By a power stroke

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4
Q

Power stroke

A

A thrusting movement generated by the sliding action of microtubules.

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5
Q

Recovery stroke

A

Return of the cilium or flagellum to its original position

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6
Q

Pseudopodia

A

Used by amoeba for locomotion, the advancing cell moves forward, allowing cell to move.

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7
Q

What kine of skeleton do invertebrates have? (flatworms and annelida)

A

Hydrostatic

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8
Q

Muscles in flatworms such as planaria are arranged:

A

in two antagonistic layers: longitudinal and circular

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9
Q

What is a hydrostatic skeleton?

A

When muscles contract against the resistance of the incompressible fluid within the animal’s tissue

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10
Q

Contraction of the circular layer of muscles causes:

A

the incompressible interstitial fluid to flow longitudinally, lengthening the animal.

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11
Q

Contraction of the longitudinal layer of muscles:

A

shortens the animal

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12
Q

Setae

A

Bristles in the lower part of each segment in annelids anchor the earthworm temporarily in the earth while muscles push it ahread.

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13
Q

Exoskeleton

A

A hard skeleton that covers all muscles and organs of some invertebrates.

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14
Q

What are exoskeletons found in?

A

Principally in arthropods such as insecrs

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15
Q

Chitin

A

What insect exoskeletons are composed of: non cellular material secreted by the epidermis.

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16
Q

What must happen for insects to grow?

A

Periodic molten and new skeleton deposition

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17
Q

Endoskeleton

A

Framework within all vertebrate organisms. Muscles are attached to the bone, permitting movement.

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18
Q

Rib cage protecs

A

thoracic organs (heart and lungs)

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19
Q

Vertebrate column

A

protects the spinal cord

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20
Q

Bone

A

Mineralized connective tissue

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21
Q

Two types of bone

A

Compact

Spongy

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22
Q

Compact bone

A

Dense bone- does not have cavities when looked at with naked eye

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23
Q

Osteons

A

structural units of bony matrix of compact bone

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24
Q

Haversian Canal

A

Central microscopic channel that each osteon is made of.

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25
Q

Lamellae

A

Concentric circles of bony matrix that surround the Haversian canal.

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26
Q

Spongy bone

A

Much less dense than compact bone. Made of of an interconnected lattice of bony spicules (trabulae).

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27
Q

What is the cavities in between the spicules filled with?

A

Red or yellow bone marrow.

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28
Q

Yellow marrow

A

inactive and infiltrated by adipose tissue

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29
Q

Red marrow

A

Involved in blood cell formation

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30
Q

What are the two types of bone cells?

A

Osteoblasts and osteoclasts

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31
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Synthesize and secrete the organic constituents of of the bone matrix; once they have become surrounded by their marrix, they mature into OSTEOCYTES.

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32
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Large, multinucleated cells involved in bone resorption

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33
Q

Bone formation occurs by either:

A

Endochondral ossification or by intramembranous ossification.

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34
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

existing cartilage is replaced by bone– how long bones arise.

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35
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A

Mesenchymal (embryonic or undifferentiated) connective tissue is transformed into, and replaced by, bone.

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36
Q

Axial skeleton

A

Basic framework of the body, consisting of skull, vertrebral column, and the rib cage. Point of attachment of the appendicular skeleton

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37
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

Bones of the appendages and the pectoral and pelvic girdles.

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38
Q

How are bones of skull held together?

A

Sutures or immovable joints that hold bones of skull together

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39
Q

Bones that move relative to one another are held together by

A

movable joints and are additionally supported and strengthened by ligaments.

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40
Q

Ligaments

A

Serve as bone-to bone connectors.

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41
Q

Tendons

A

Attach skeletal muscle to bones and bend the skeleton at the movable koints

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42
Q

Origin

A

Point of attachment of a muscle to a stationary bone

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43
Q

Insertion

A

The point of attachment of a muscle to the bone that moves

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44
Q

Extension

A

Straightening of a bone

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45
Q

Flexion

A

Bending of a joint

46
Q

Muscle tissue consists of

A

Bundles of specialized contractile fibers held together by connective tissue

47
Q

3 types of muscles in mammals

A

Skeletal, Cardiac and smooth

48
Q

The axons of the pyramidal cells of motor cortex descent to

A

synapse on lower motor neurons in the brain stem and the spinal cord.

49
Q

Pyramidal system

A

Provides rapid commands to skeletal muscles and other organs.
No intervening synapses, hence rapid

50
Q

Extrapyramidal system

A

Centers that issue somatic motor commands as a result of processing performed at the unconscious, involuntary level.

51
Q

Red nucleus

A

Located in the mesencephalon, component of the extrapyramidal system primarily in control of skeletal muscle tone.

52
Q

Skeletal muscle is responsible for:

A

the voluntary movements

53
Q

What is skeletal muscle innervated by?

A

The somatic nervous system

54
Q

Each fiber of the skeletal muscle is

A

multinucleated cell created by the fusion of serveral mononucleated embryonic cells

55
Q

Myofibrils

A

Embedded in fibers

Filaments– divided into contractile units called sarcomeres

56
Q

What are the myofibrils enveloped by?

A

A modified endoplasmic reticulum that stores calcium ions

57
Q

What is the modified endoplasmic reticulum called?

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

58
Q

Sarcoplasm

A

Cytoplasm of the muscle fiber

59
Q

Cell membrane of the muscle fiber

A

sarcolemma

60
Q

Sarcolemma

A

Propagates action potential

61
Q

What is the sarcolemma connected to?

A

A system of tranverse tubules (T system) which are oriented perpendicularly to the myofibrils.

62
Q

What does the T system provide?

A

Channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers and can also propagate an action potential.

63
Q

Are mitochondria abundant in muscle cells? Why?

A

Yes because the energy requirements of contraction are very high.

64
Q

Striated muscle

A

Skeletal muscle is called striated because it has striations of light and dark bands

65
Q

Sarcomere is composed of:

A

Thin and thick filaments.

66
Q

Thin filaments of the sarcomere are

A

Chains of actin molecules

67
Q

Thick filaments of the sacromere are

A

Organized bundles of myosin molecules

68
Q

Z line

A

Define the boundaries of a single sarcomere and anchor the thin filaments

69
Q

I band

A

Region containaing the thin filaments only

70
Q

H zone

A

Region containing thick filaments only

71
Q

A band

A

Spans the entire length of thick filaments and the overlapping portions of the thin filaments

72
Q

What bands are reduced during contraction?

A

H and I, NOT A

73
Q

What is muscle contraction stimulated by?

A

Message from the somatic nervous system sent via a motor neuron.

74
Q

Neuromusclular junction

A

The link between the nerve terminal and the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber.

75
Q

Synpase

A

The space between the nerve terminal and the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber

76
Q

Depolarization of motor neuron results in

A

The release of neurotransmitters from the nerve terminal

77
Q

What does the neurotransmitter do after it has been relaeased?

A

Diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to special receptor sites on the sarcolemma.

78
Q

What needs to happen for the permeability of the sarcolemma to be altered and an action potential to be released?

A

Enough of receptor sites on the sarcolemma need to be stimulated.

79
Q

What happens when an action potential is generated?

A

It is conducted along the sarcolemma and the T system and into the interior of the muscle fiber. This causes release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm

80
Q

Calcium ions:

A

Initiate the contraction of the sarcomere

81
Q

Actin and myosin must ____ in order for the muscle to contract

A

Slide past each other

82
Q

Rigor mortis

A

Caused by absense of adensine triphosphate, which is required for the myosin heads to be released and stop contraction

83
Q

5 types of muscle contraction

A

Isotonic, concentric, cynamic, eccentric, and isometric

84
Q

Isotonic

A

Occurs when a muscle shortens against a fixed load whie the tension of that muscle remains constant

Shortens
Tension constant
fixed load

85
Q

Concentric

A

Dynamic contraction when the muscle fibers shorten and the tension on the muscle increases

Shorten
Tension increase

86
Q

Dynamic

A

Both concentric and isotonic results in a change of length of the muscle with a corresponding change in tension of that muscle

87
Q

Eccentric

A

A type of dynamic contraction

Lengthens, and tension increases

88
Q

Isometric

A

Occurs when both ends of the msucle are fized and no change in length occurs
Tension increases

89
Q

All or non response

A

Individual muscle fibers generally exhibit an all-or-none response, meaning only a stimulus above a minimal value can elicit contraction.

90
Q

How can strength of single muscle increase?

A

Cannot, all or none

91
Q

How can strength of whole muscle increase?

A

Recruit more muscle fibers

92
Q

Simple twitch

A

A response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus

93
Q

What does a simple twitch consist of?

A

Latent period, contraction period, and relaxation period

94
Q

What happens during the latent period?

A

The action potential spreads along the sarcolemma, and CA2+ ions are released

95
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

Occurs after contraction period– a brief relaxation period in which muscle is unresponsive to a stimulus

96
Q

Temporal summation

A

When fibers of a muscle are exposed to very frequent stimuli– muscle cannot fully relax. Contraction begin to combine becoming stronger.

97
Q

Tetanus

A

When contractions become continuous and cannot relax at all. Results in fatigue in order to contract.

98
Q

Tonus

A

A state of partial contraction. Muscles are never completely relaxed and maintain a partially contracted state at all times.

99
Q

What do skeletal muscles do in period of strenuous activity?

A

Convert glucose to pyruvic acid in the process of glucolysis.

100
Q

What does conversion of glucose to pyruvic acid allow the muscles to do?

A

Continue contracting in the absence of oxygen

101
Q

When is lactic acid generated?

A

When pyruvic acid is reacted with the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase– which allows the puruvate to enter Krebs or tricarboxylic cycle

102
Q

Cori cycle

A

Convert lactic acid in the liver to glucose for discharge into the bloodstream– not related to the conversion of glucose.

103
Q

Smooth muscle

A

Responsible for involuntary actions. Smooth continuous contractions

104
Q

What are smooth muscles innvervated by?

A

Autonomic nervous system

105
Q

Where is smooth muscle found?

A

Found in the digestive tract, bladder, uterus, and blood vessel walls

106
Q

True or false: smooth muscles have striations

A

FALSE

107
Q

How many nucleus/nuclei do smooth muscles have?

A

1 centrally located nucleus

108
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Striated
One or two nuclei per cell
Involuntary/autonomic nervous system
Strong forceful contraction

109
Q

What is the primary source of energy for muscle contraction?

A

ATP– however, very little ATP is actually stores in the muscles so other forms of energy must be stores and rapid converted to ATP

110
Q

Creatine phosphate

A

A high-energy compound- in vertebrates and some invertebrates, where energy can temporarily be stored.

111
Q

Arginine phosphate

A

Similar to creatine phosphate, many invertebrates use to store energy.

112
Q

Myoglobin

A

Hemoglobin like protein found in muscle tissue- Has high oxygen affinity and maintains the oxygen supply in muscles by binding to oxygen tightly.

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