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AP Bio T1 > Chapter 16, 17, 18 > Flashcards

Chapter 16, 17, 18 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Chromosomes are made of

A

DNA and proteins

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2
Q

Frederick Griffith

A

Worked w steptococcus pneumonia which causes pneumonia in mammals

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3
Q

Frederick griffith strains of bacteria

A

S (smooth) = disease causing strain

R (rough) = harmless strain

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4
Q

Griffith discovered that

A

dna from the dead S cells had genetically transformed some of the living R bacteria into S bacteria which he called transformation

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5
Q

Transformation

A

A change in genotype and phenotype due to the incorportation of external Dna by a cell

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6
Q

Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarthy, and Colin MacLeod

A
  • broke open the heat killed pathogenic bacteria from Griffiths exp amd extracted the contents
  • discorvered that when DNA was allowed to remain active, transformation occured
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7
Q

Conclusion of Avery MacLeod and McCarthy

A

When S cells in Griffith’s exp were killed, DNA was released and transformed the R cells into S cells
Announced dna = gentic material

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8
Q

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

A

Worked w bacteriophages then labeled dna and proteins w different radioactice isotopes
Discovered that the radioactice labeled dna was injected into the host cell and concluded dna was the genetic material

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9
Q

Bacteriophages

A

Viruses that infect bacteria

Viruses are made of only dna and proteins

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10
Q

Dna is repeated what

A

Nucleotides

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11
Q

Nucleotide made of

A

Phosphate group
Nitrogen base
Deoxyribose sugar

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12
Q

2 families of nitrogenous bases

A

Pyrimidines and purines

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13
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Nitrogen bases made up of a six membered ring of carbon and nitrogen

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14
Q

Purines

A

Nitrogen bases made up of a six membered ring fused to a five membered ring

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15
Q

Erwin Chargaff

A

Determined that dna composition was different for each org

Discovered that 4 nitrogenous bases are present in a specific ratio (a=t g=c)

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16
Q

Maurice Wilkins & Rosalind Franklin

A

Used xray crystallography to produce images of DNA suggesting that dna was helical in shape

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17
Q

James Watson and Francis Crick

A

Determined dna is double helix shape
Side of ladder = sugar, phosphate backbone
Rungs = nitrogen bases

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18
Q

Antiparallel

A

Facts that watson and crick showed that the sugar backbone of dna run in opposite directions
5’ end and 3’ end

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19
Q

Dna replicaion

A

Nitrogen bases break, half acts as templates and nucleotides are filled in

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20
Q

What is watson and cricks model for dna replication called?

A

Semiconservative model

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21
Q

Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl

A

Did experiments that supported the semiconservative model, found a human cell can copy its entire dna in just a few hours

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22
Q

Helicase

A

Unwinds and unzips the double helix

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23
Q

What keeps strands apart during replication

A

Single stranded binding proteins (ssb)

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24
Q

Topoisomerase

A

Relieved the tighter twisting further down the strand by breaking, sivelinv, and rejoining dna strands

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25
Q

Origins of replication

A

Sites where dna replication begins

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26
Q

How many origins of replication

A

Hundreds in eukaryotes

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27
Q

Replication fork

A

A y shaped point on a replicating dna molecule where new strands are growing

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28
Q

At each replication origin, a replication bubble forms amd dna replication occurs in both directions away from the replication origin

A

.

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29
Q

Primer

A

A short rna sequence that binds to the template dna strand, signaling where dna replication is to begin

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30
Q

Dna polymerase

A

Adds nucleotides to the primer creating a new strand of dna

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31
Q

What direction does replication go

A

5’ to 3’ bc polymerase can only add onto 3’ end

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32
Q

Leading strand

A

Continuous strand

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33
Q

Lagging strand

A

Strand that is copied in segments called okazaki fragments

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34
Q

Dna ligase

A

Joins okazaki fragments

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35
Q

Mrna

A

Carries genetic info from dna in the nucleus to direct protein synthesis in the cytoplasm

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36
Q

Rrna

A

Combines w proteins to form a functional ribosome

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37
Q

Trna

A

Transports amino acids to the ribosomes so proteins can be made

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38
Q

Beadle and Tatum

A

Proposed one gene- one enzyme which states that the function of a gene is to produce a specific enzyme

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39
Q

Central dogma of biology

A

Mechanism for reading the code and signaling the cell to perform a function: DNA codes for RNA which guides the synthesis of proteins

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40
Q

Transcription

A

Process by which dna is copied to rna results in single stranded rna molecule

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41
Q

Steps of transcription

A

Initiation
Elongation
Termination

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42
Q

Initiation

A

Each dna sequence has a region called the promoter

Rna polymerase attaches and adds nucleotides in 3’ to 5’ direction

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43
Q

Promoter

A

Region of sna where rna polymerase attaches amd initiated transcription

44
Q

Pre mrna

A

Single uncoiled chain of rna nucleotides that carriers genetic info to the ribosome for protein production

45
Q

5’ cap

A

Modified form of guanine added onto the 5’ end of the premrna molecule

46
Q

PolyA tail

A

Sequence of 50-250 adenine nucleotides added onto the 3’ end of the prerna molecule

47
Q

Functions of 5’ cap and poly A tail

A

Faciliate export of the final mrna from nucleus to the cytoplasm
Help protect mrna from degredation by hudrolytic enzymes
Help ribosomes attach to the 5’ emd of the mRna once if reaches the cytoplasm

48
Q

Average length of RNA is ______ only _______ nucleotides are needed to code for avg protein

A

8000 total

1200 needed

49
Q

What removes introns

A

Spliceosome

50
Q

Where does translation occur

A

Cytoplasm

51
Q

Translation

A

Process of making polypeptides using MRNA as a template

52
Q

Codon is where

A

On mRNA

53
Q

Initiation of translation

A

Two parts of ribosome come together amd attah to mRNA to complete the ribosome
Meth. binds where start codon is located

54
Q

Elongation of translation

A

Trna reads codons amd picks up corresponding anticodon

Translocation occurs

55
Q

Translocation

A

Process of mRNA moving along the ribosome making the polypeptide chain

56
Q

Termination in translation

A

Trna codes til reaches stop codon
Polypeptide released from ribosome
mRNA amd ribosome disassemble

57
Q

Point mutation

A

Chemical change in just one base pair or nucleotide

Includes substitution, insertion, and deletion

58
Q

Missense mutations

A

Leads to one wrong AA

59
Q

Nonsense mutations

A

Change one AA to a stop codon stops it prematurely

60
Q

Frameshift mutation

A

Insertion/deletion changes every AA after the mutation

61
Q

Inversion

A

A type of mutation that occurs when a portion of a chromosome breaks off and reattaches itself in the opposite direction

62
Q

Translocation mutation

A

A type of mutation that occurs when a part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to a different chromosome

63
Q

Mutagens

A

Substances that cause mutations

64
Q

Effects of mutations

A

Body cell mutations not passed on to kids but cause problems in parent
Sex cell mutations are passed on but may not affect the parent

65
Q

Causes of mutations

A

Spontaneously during DNA replication or DNA repair mechanisms or Mutagens

66
Q

Operon

A

A segment of DNA that contains a cluster of genes that all have a related function and can be regulated at the same time

67
Q

Lac operon

A

Consists of three enzymes and E. coli that are needed to metabolize lactose

68
Q

Parts of an operon

A

Operator: Controls the axis of RNA polymerase to the genes found within the promoter site or after the promoter
Promoter: site at which the RNA polymerize attaches to the gene
Genes of the operon

69
Q

Regulatory genes

A

Segment of DNA before the operon that produces a repressor protein that can bind to the operator and turn operon off or on

70
Q

Regulatory gene is a sequence of DNA encoding a regulatory proteins or RNA

A

The repressor binds to the operator and blocks on a plumber is from attaching

71
Q

Repressible operon

A

An operon that is normally on but can be inhibited by the repressor protein

72
Q

The repressor protein produced by the regulatory gene is inactive in repressible operon

A

A corepressor binds to the in active repressor protein in this activates it causing it to buying to the operator site shutting down the operon

73
Q

Inducible operon

A

And operon that is normally off that can be activated by disabling the repressor protein

74
Q

The repressor protein produced by regulatory gene is active

A

An induced binds to the active repressor protein and thus inactivates it, with the repressor out of the operator site, RNA polymerase can access genes of operon again

75
Q

Ex of inducible operon

A

Lac operon

76
Q

DNA methylation

A

The addition of methyl groups to DNA which causes do you need to be more tightly packed reducing gene expression

77
Q

Histone acetylation

A

Acetyl groups are added to AA of histone proteins that’s making the chromatin less tightly packed and encouraging transcription

78
Q

Epigenetic inheritance

A

Inheritance of traits that are transmitted to offspring without directly involving the nucleotide sequence, dna not changed just its expression

79
Q

Transcription initiation complex

A

A poster of proteins on the promoter that greatly enhances the initiation of transcription

80
Q

Enhancer

A

A segment of DNA that is for upstream from the promoter which helps initiate and regulate transcription, contain proteins called activators which help enhancers buying to the promoter completing the transcription initiation complex

81
Q

Coordinatelt controlled genes

A

Genes that are controlled by the same control elements even though they’re on different chromosomes

82
Q

Euk dont have operons so

A

To make a specific product, several different enzymes located on diff chromosomes must be involved

83
Q

Alternative RNA splicing

A

Occurs when different mRNA molecules are produced from the same pre-mRNA molecules depending on which segments are treated as exons and introns

84
Q

mRNA degredation

A

Short nucleotide sequences that can cause the newly made mRNA molecule to quickly be broken down

85
Q

Regulation of translation

A

In some mRNAs, the initiation of translation can be blocked by regulatory proteins that bind to specific sequences or structures within the untranslated region at the 5’ or 3’ and, preventing the attachment of ribosomes

86
Q

Proteasomes

A

Protein complexes that can recognize and degrade proteins

87
Q

Exons are what percentage of the human genome

A

1.5%

88
Q

RNA interference (RNAi)

A

Occurs when a small segment of our name molecules bind to the mRNA interfering with the ability of tRNA to read the mRNA strand and build the protein

89
Q

What percentage of all human genes are regulated by microRNA

A

50

90
Q

Diff between miRNA amd siRNA

A

miRNA Are from single-stranded RNA molecules while siRNA come from much longer linear double-stranded RNA molecules

91
Q

Differentiation

A

Process by which cells become specialized in structure ans function

92
Q

Morphogenesis

A

Physical processes that give an organism its shape

93
Q

Morphogens

A

Substances in which the concentration of them helps establish an embryos axes and other features of its form

94
Q

Cytoplasmic determinates

A

Maternal substances (RNA and proteins) in the egg that influence the course of early development

95
Q

Induction

A

Process in which one group of embryonic cells influence the development of another, usually causimg chamges in gene expression
•celltocell signaling results from other cells in area, causes cells to differentiate

96
Q

Determination

A

Progressive restriction of development potential in which the possible fate of each cell becomes more limited as the embryo develops
At end of determination, cell is commited to its fate

97
Q

Pattern formation

A

After cells have differentiated, they arrange themselves into organs and tissues in their characteristic places creating an organism

98
Q

The molecular cues that control pattern formation is called positional information and are provided by

A

cytoplasmic determinates and inductive signals

99
Q

Homeotic genes

A

Group of regulatory genes that control the placement and organization of body parts in the late embryo to adult stage of development

100
Q

Ex of homeotic genes

A

Hox genes associated w controlling the development of the body

101
Q

Oncogene

A

Gene that is involved in triggerimg molecular events that can lead to cancer

102
Q

Proto-oncogenes

A

Normal cellular gene that has the potential to become an oncogene

103
Q

Proto oncogenes do what

A

Code for proteins that stimulate regular cell growth amd division
Can be converted to oncogenes due to the movement of DNA within the genome (translocation), amplification of a proto-oncogene or point mutations in the control elements

104
Q

Tumor-suppressor genes

A

A gene whose proteon product inhibits cell division, preventing the uncontrolled cell growth that comtributed to cancer

105
Q

Ex tumor-suppressor genes

A

P53 gene that codes for a specific transcription factor that promotes the synthesis of proteins that inhibit the cell cycle

AP Bio T1 (9 decks)

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