Chapter 14 - Personality Flashcards
what two common observations give rise to the concept of personality?
1) people differ in their behaviour from others
2) individual people behave pretty consistently over time and across different situations
personality
enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting, which characterize how a person reacts to life situations.
for a behaviour to be seen as reflecting personality, what three characteristics should it have?
1) they are components of identity, distinguish them from others
2) they are caused by internal factors, rather than external
3) behaviours “fit together”
what three standards are used to evaluate the usefulness of a personality theory?
1) provides comprehensive framework, where we can add in known facts
2) allows us to predict future events with some presicion
3) stimulates the discovery of new knowledge
what happened that made freud convinced of the power of the unconscious mind
when making patients with physical symptoms re-experience traumatic memories/unacceptable feelings, their symptoms disappeared or improved greatly
psychic energy
powers the mind
constantly presses for direct or indirect release
conscious
mental events we are currently aware of
preconscious
things we aren’t currently of, but can be called into awareness
unconscious
wishes, feelings, and impulses that we aren’t aware of
describe how freud structured personality
id
ego
superego
id
where is it
how does it operate
exists in unconscious
operates according to the pleasure principle
pleasure principle
seeks immigrate gratification
very primal instinct
ego
where is it
how does it operate
exists everywhere but primarily at conscious level
operates according to the reality principle
reality principle
tests reality, to see when the id can safely discharge its impulses
superego
the moral compass
difference between ego and superego
ego delays gratification until conditions are appropriate
superego tries to block gratification permanently
why is ego sometimes referred to as the “executive of personality”
it has to balance the demands of the id, the constraints of the superego, and the demands of reality.
defence mechanisms
what do they do and when do they develop?
deny or distort reality in order to reduce anxiety, when coping behaviours won’t work
types of defence mechanisms
repression denial displacement intellectualization projection rationalization reaction formation sublimation
repression
anxiety-causing impulses/memories are pushed into the unconscious
denial
refusing to acknowledge what is causing you anxiety
denial may involve either the emotions connected with the event, or the event itself
displacement
repressing an unacceptable/dangerous impulse, and redirecting it to a safer, substitute target
intellectualization
The emotion connected with the event is repressed
The situation is dealt with as an intellectually interesting event
projection
repressing an unacceptable impulses, then attributing it to other people
rationalization
creating a fake, but plausible explanation/excuse for an anxiety causing behavior/event that has already happened
reaction formation
repressing an anxiety causing impulse, finding release in an exaggerated expression of the opposite behaviour
sublimation
A repressed impulse is released in the form of a socially acceptable/admired behaviour
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A person who was sexually abused and childhood develops amnesia for the event
repression
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A man who was told he has terminal cancer refuses to consider the possibility that he will not recover
denial
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A man who is harassed by his boss experiences no anger at work, but then goes home and abuses his wife and children
displacement
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A person who has been rejected in an important relationship talks in a highly rational matter about the “interesting unpredictability of love relationships”
intellectualization
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A woman with strong repressed desires to have an affair continually accuse as her husband of being unfaithful to her
projection
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A student caught cheating on an exam justifies the act by pointing out that the professors tests are unfair and, besides, everybody else was cheating too
rationalization
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A mother who harbours feelings of hatred for her child represses them and becomes overprotective of the child
reaction formation
what type of defence mechanism is used in the following situation:
A man with strong hostile impulses becomes an investigative reporter who ruins political careers with his stories
sublimation
what are the stages involved in freuds stages of psychosexual development
oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
what happens if there is deprivation or overindulgence during any of the psychosexual stages
fixation occurs
oral stage
Approximate age
Erogenous zone
Key task
0 to 2 years old
Mouth
Weaning
anal stage
Approximate age
Erogenous zone
Key task
2 to 3 years old
Anus
Toilet training
phallic stage
Approximate age
Erogenous zone
Key task
4 to 6 years old
Genitals
Resolving Oedipus complex
latency stage
Approximate age
Erogenous zone
Key task
7 to puberty
none
Developing social relationships
genital stage
Approximate age
erogenous zone
Key task
puberty on words
Genitals
Developing mature social and sexual relationships
how did freud test his ideas?
clinical observation
He apposed experimental research
in a study, participants were instructed to think about two people, suppress thoughts about one of the targets. reported back what they dreamed.
What happened in their dreams?
they dreamed more often of suppressed targets than the non-suppressed targets
problems with the psychosexual development theory
concepts are ambiguous
Difficult to define and measure
Who were neoanalysts
psycho analysts who disagreed with certain aspects of freudian theory
what problems did neoanalysts have with freudian theory
social and cultural factors weren’t given enough of an important role
He stressed infantile sexuality too much
Too much emphasis on the events of childhood as determinants of adult personality
how did the way neoanalysts view human nature differ from how freud viewed human nature
freud - humans are motivated by inborn sexual and aggressive instinct/drives
Neoanalysts- motivated by social interest
social interest
desire to advance the welfare of others
Caring about others
Cooperating with others
analytic psychology
humans possess a personal unconscious based on their life experiences and a collective unconscious consisting of memories accumulated throughout the entire history of the human race
archetypes
inherited tendencies to interpret experience in certain ways
archetypes find expression and symbols, myths, and believes that appear across many cultures
what do object relations theories focus on
the early experiences ppl have with caregivers form mental representations of themselves and others
such as seeing mothers as kind or malevolent
adult attachment styles
secure
avoidant
anxious/ambivalent
secure adult attachment traits
find it easy to get close w others
comfortable depending on others
comfortable w others depending on them
don’t worry about getting abondoned
don’t worry about getting too attached
avoidant adult attachment traits
somewhat uncomfortable being close to others
trust issues
difficult to depend on others
nervous when ppl get too close
uncomfortable with intimacy
anxious/ambivalent adult attachment traits
thinks others don’t want to get close to them
worry that partner doesn’t really love them
they want to get very close, and that scares others away
criticisms of psychoanalytic theory
1) many of its specific propositions haven’t held up under research
2) it’s hard to test bc it explains too much
what does it mean when we say psychoanalytic theory is hard to test bc it explains too much
if we expect a participant to be aggressive, and instead they’re sweet, does that mean the theory is wrong, or are they using reaction formation?
what do humanists believe about human nature
humans are inherently good
individuals strive for self actualization
self actualization
the total realization of your potential as a human
personal constructs
what is it?
cognitive categories which ppl use to sort the ppl and events in their lives
ex: construct of “successful”
personal constructs
what is it used for?
a system of personal constructs is used to construct reality
what what george kelly’s personal construct theory?
personal construct system was the basis for individual diffs in personality
does everyone have the same personal constructs
no
you might think being successful means having a well paying job and a house
someone else might think being successful means having a happy marriage and kids
does someone have the same personal constructs throughout their life, or can they change?
they can change
you could think being successful means having a well paying job and a house
but later you could find a nice guy and start to think being successful means having a happy marriage and kids
what did carl rogers believe about human nature
our behaviour is in response to our immediate conscious experience of self and behaviour,
when these forces that direct our behaviour aren’t being distorted by the environment, they will lead us to self actualization
the self
an organized, consistent set of perceptions of and beliefs about oneself
self consistency
absence of conflict among self perceptions
self congruence
consistency between self perceptions and experience
once self concept is established, what is needed to maintain it?
self consistency
self congruence
what happens when there is a conflict between self perception and experience
they can react adaptively and adjust their self concept
they can deny or distort reality
what did carl rogers believe we are born with?
an innate need for positive regard
what does conditional positive regard make the child feel?
feel they’re only worthy of love when meeting certain standards
what does conditional positive regard lead to the development of?
conditions of worth
what do conditions of worth do
dictate how we approve or disapprove of ourselves.
they can cause major incongruence between self and experience
how did rogers define fully functioning persons?
don’t hide behind a mask
feel a sense of inner freedom, self determination
no fear of behaving spontaneously and creatively
self esteem
how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves
in adulthood, is there a large gender difference when it comes to self-esteem?
not really
in late adolescence (15 to 18 years old), is there a large gender difference in self-esteem?
yes
Males report higher self-esteem than females
T/F levels of self-esteem tend to be stable across development
true
benefits of high self-esteem
less susceptible to social pressure
Less interpersonal problems
Happier
Achieve more
Form more satisfying love relationships
cons of low self-esteem
prone to psychological problems
Prone to physical illness
Poor social relationships
Underachievement
effect of success on those with high self-esteem
increases self-esteem
effect of success on those with low self-esteem
generates self-doubt and anxiety
T/F those with low self-esteem have issues with regulating their mood
sort of
They know what to do, but do not engage in those behaviours
what conditions foster the development of high self-esteem?
parents show unconditional acceptance and love
Establish clear guidelines, Reinforce compliance
Give child freedom to make decisions and express opinions within the guidelines
self verification
preserving self-concept by maintaining self consistency and congruence
T/F people are more likely to recall self consistent information
IE: people are more likely to remember feedback that is consistent with their self-concept
true
T/F people with negative self concepts do well in marriages where their partner views them positively
false
self enhancement
processes to gain and preserve a positive self image
T/F people tend to attribute their success to their environment, but attribute their failures to themselves
false
Attributes access to self, attribute failures to environment
how does culture affects self-concept when it comes to American and Japanese university students?
Americans describe themselves with more personal traits
Japanese describe themselves with more social identity traits
gender schemas
The structure in our mind that holds what we consider appropriate and expected for males and for females
how do gender schemas affect self-concept in western cultures?
men have more individualistic self-concept
Women have more collectivistic self-concept
what are the big five personality factors
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
OCEAN
behaviours of openness
curious Imaginative Artistic Excitable Unconventional
behaviours of conscientiousness
efficient Organize Not careless Thorough self disciplined Not impulsive
behaviours of extroversion
gregarious/sociable Forceful Energetic Adventurous Enthusiastic Outgoing
behaviours of agreeableness
forgiving Not demanding Warm Not stubborn Modest Sympathetic
behaviours of neuroticism
anxious Irritable Depression Self-conscious moody Not self-confident
cattell’s personality theory
16 personality factors
Eysenck’s personality theory
introversion – extroversion
Stability – neuroticism
Psychoticism - self control
what did eysenck believe about introversion and arousal
introverts are chronically overaroused, so they try to minimize stimulation to reduce arousal
what did eysenck Believe about extraversion and arousal
extraverts are chronically under aroused, need frequent stimulation to achieve optimal level of arousal
what did eysenck Believe about unstable people and arousal
they have hair trigger nervous systems, show large and sudden shifts in arousal
what did eysenck Believe about stable people and arousal
show smaller and more gradual shift’s in arousal
what three factors make it difficult to predict behaviour on the basis of individual personality traits
1) traits interact with other traits, as well as characteristics of different situations
2) consistency across situations is influenced by how important a given trait is for the person
3) people differ in their tendency to self monitor
self-monitoring
tailoring behaviour to what is called for by the situation
reciprocal determinism
The person, the person’s behavior, and the environment all influence one another in a pattern of causal links
what did Julian rotter Believe about how behaviour in a situation is influenced?
influenced by two factors:
Expectancy and reinforcement
expectancy
what we think about how likely it is that certain consequences will happen if we behave a particular way in a specific situation
reinforcement value
how much we desire/dread the outcome that we are expecting the behaviour to produce
internal – external locus of control
The degree of personal control we have in our lives
what do people with internal locus of control believe?
Life outcomes are largely under personal control and depend on their own behaviour
what do you people with an Extertal locus of control believe?
Life outcomes are not really in their control
what did Bandura mean by human agency?
humans are active agents in their own lives, they are not just at the mercy of the environment
what are the four components of human agency
intentionality
Forethought
Self reactiveness
Self reflectiveness
intentionality
we plan, modify our plans, and act with intention
forethought
we anticipate outcomes, set goals, and actively choose behaviours relevant to those goals
self reactiveness
The process of motivating and regulating her own actions, the processes that we use when we modify our goals
self reflectiveness
we think about and evaluate our own motivations, values, and goals
self efficacy
our belief about our ability to perform the behaviours needed to achieve the desired outcome
what are four factors that affect self-efficacy
performance experience
observational learning
Verbal persuasion
Emotional arousal
performance experience
past successes and failures on similar tasks
If you failed on something before, you’re more likely to believe you’ll fail at it again
observational learning
watching other people’s behaviours and the outcomes
If you observe someone similar to yourself accomplish a goal, you’re more likely to believe that you’ll succeed too if you perform the same behaviours
verbal persuasion
encouraging or discouraging messages from others
emotional arousal
arousal that can be interpreted as enthusiasm or anxiety
if-then behaviour consistencies
there is consistency and behavior, but it is found within similar situations
what are six methods that can be used to measure personality variables
personality scales and self ratings responses on projective tests Physiological measures Behavioral assessment Report/ratings by other people Interview data
structured interviews
what is it?
A set of specific questions that are given to every participant
structured interview
What are its advantages?
A standardized situation is created, so responses can be interpreted and compared
Remote behaviour sampling
researcher/clinicians can collect samples of behaviour from respondents as they live their daily lives
rational approach
for example, to measure intraversion – extroversion, we might ask ourselves what introverts and extraverts would be likely to say about themselves, then write items that capture those kinds of self descriptions
empirical approach
items are chosen not because their content seems relevant to the trait, but because previous research has shown that the items were answered differently by groups of people
what is the assumption underlying projective tests?
when a person is presented with an ambiguous stimulus, the interpretation attached to the stimulus will have to come partly from within
List two widely used projective tests
Rorschach ink blots
thematic apperception test
Rorschach inkblots
participants are shown inkblots and ask what it looks like, and what feature of the ink blot caused it to be seen in that manner
thematic apperception test
A series of ambiguous pictures. Respondents are asked to describe what is going on in each scene, what has led up to the current situation, what the characters are thinking and feeling, and what the outcome of the situation will be
what personality measure is favoured by psychodynamic theorists? why?
projective techniques
They believe that people’s responses to these tests reveal unconscious processes
what personality measure is favoured by humanistic theorists?
self-report measures of the self concept and personal aspirations
what personality measures are favoured by social cognitive researchers?
behavioural assessments
what personality measures are favoured by trait theorists?
paper and pencil inventories, such as the MMPI and the NEOPI
what personality measures are favoured by researchers interested in biological processes underlying personality functioning?
physiological measures
what part of the brain is responsible for arousal
reticular formation
what did Hans Eysenck believe about personality when reticular formation is sensitive/highly stimulated
causes introversion
what did Hans Eysenck believe about personality when reticular formation is not very sensitive/less stimulated
causes extroversion
T/F extroverts react more strongly to a drop of lemon juice on their tongue
true
T/F extroverts react more negatively to loud noises and electric shocks
false
introverts
what aspects of the Big 5 personality factors can be found in animals?
neuroticism
openness to new experiences
agreeableness
from an evolutionary perspective, what might be the cause of differences in personality in animals?
males might need to be more aggressive with other males, but less aggressive with females
having this personality might increase survival and reproduction
what is the Bem Sex Role Inventory?
a test where you rate yourself on a few statements that are associated with a specific gender, but you don’t get to see what gender each statement is associated with
