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PSYCO 105 > Chapter 13 - Behavior in a Social Context > Flashcards

Chapter 13 - Behavior in a Social Context Flashcards

1
Q

attributions

A

judgements about the causes of our own and other people’s behaviour and outcomes

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2
Q

personal/internal attributions

A

people’s behaviour is caused by their characteristics

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3
Q

situational/external attributions

A

behaviour is caused by the aspects of the situation

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4
Q

what type of attribution is the following:

I got an A on the exam because I have a high ability

A

personal/internal

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5
Q

what type of attribution is the following:

I got an A on the test because it was easy

A

situational/external

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6
Q

what factors affect what attribution we make?

A

consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus

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7
Q

consistency

A

is the response consistent over time?

ex) if Kim says she hates art class, and two weeks later she still says she hates art class, then consistency is high

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8
Q

distinctiveness

A

is the response distinctive to that situation, or does the person demonstrate similar responses to all/many situations

ex) if Kim says she hates art class, but she doesn’t hate any other class, then distinctiveness is high

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9
Q

consensus

A

do other people agree with the behavior?

ex) if Kim hates art class, and other students also hate art class, then consensus is high

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10
Q

what attributional factors lead to personal attribution?

A

high consistency
Low distinctiveness
Low consensus

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11
Q

what attributional factors lead to situational attribution

A

high consistency
High distinctiveness
High consensus

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12
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

when it comes to explaining other people’s behavior, underestimating the impact of the situation and overestimating the role of personal factors

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13
Q

what can reduce the fundamental attribution error?

A

when people have time to reflect on their judgments

When people are highly motivated to be careful

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14
Q

self serving bias

A

attributing successes to personal factors and attributing failures to situational factors

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15
Q

what type of attributional pattern do depressed people display?

A

opposite of self-serving bias

Taking little credit for successes and much credit for failures

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16
Q

how does culture affect attribution of other people’s behaviour

A

people from individualistic cultures tend to attribute other people’s behaviour to personal factors

People from collectivistic cultures tend to attribute other people’s behaviour to situational factors

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17
Q

how does culture affect attribution of our own behaviour

A

collectivistic cultures – take less credit for success, more for failures

individualistic cultures – take more credit for successes, less for failures

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18
Q

primacy effect

A

we tend to attach more importance to the initial information that we learn about a person

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19
Q

T/F because of the primacy effect, we can’t overcome our initial impressions of a person

A

false

New info can change your opinion, but it has to “work harder “

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20
Q

why does new information have to work harder to overcome initial impression?

A

we are most alert to information we receive first

Initial info can shape how we perceive subsequent info

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21
Q

in terms of evolutionary psychology, explain why we are most alert to initial information

A

evaluating stimuli quickly was adaptive for survival

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22
Q

how can primacy effects be reduced

A

when we are asked to avoid making snap judgments

We are reminded to carefully consider evidence

We are made to feel accountable for our judgements

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23
Q

stereotype

A

A generalized believe about a group of people

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24
Q

self fulfilling prophecy

A

when your expectations lead you to act towards others in a way that brings about what you expected

ex: if you expect the host of the party to be cold and aloof, your behaviour towards them may change in subtle ways, that results in “confirming” what you thought

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25
Q

attitude

A

positive or negative reaction towards a stimulus

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26
Q

what are the three broad factors under which attitudes best predict behaviour

A

when counteracting situational factors are weak, attitude influences behaviour more strongly

When we are aware of attitude and hold them strongly, it has a greater influence on behavior

General attitudes are good at predicting general behavior. Specific attitudes are good at predicting specific behaviour

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27
Q

Theory of cognitive dissonance

A

when two or more of a persons cognitions contradict one another, they are uncomfortable and become motivated to reduce the dissonance

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28
Q

counterattitudinal behaviour

A

behaviour that is inconsistent with our attitude

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29
Q

T/F counter attitudinal behaviour always produces dissonance

A

false

Produces dissonance only if we perceive that our actions were freely chosen, not coerced

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30
Q

when is dissonance maximized

A

when the behaviour threatens our sense of self worth or produces negative consequences that were foreseeable

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31
Q

how can dissonance be reduced?

A

1) rationalizing that their attitude/behavior wasn’t important
2) find external justification
3) making other excuses

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32
Q

self perception theory

A

we make inferences about our own attitudes by observing how we behave

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33
Q

according to self perception theory, why does counter attitudinal behaviour produce attitude change?

A

because you observe how you’ve acted, and infer how you must have felt in order to have behaved that way

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34
Q

persuasion components

A 
communicator
Message
Channel
Audience
Context
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35
Q

components of credibility

A

expertise

Trustworthiness

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36
Q

communicator characteristics that increase persuasiveness

A

communicator credibility

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37
Q

two-sided approach

A

when presenting an argument, it is easier to persuade someone if you show them both sides of the issue

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38
Q

message characteristics that increase persuasiveness

A

two-sided approach
Moderate discrepancy
Moderate fear

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39
Q

moderate discrepancy

A

it is easier to persuade the audience if you present a position that’s only slightly different from their viewpoint

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40
Q

moderate fear

A

arousing fear to persuade can be effective when it evokes moderate fear and provides low-cost ways to reduce the threat

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41
Q

two routes to persuasion

A

central route to persuasion

peripheral route to persuasion

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42
Q

Central route to persuasion

A

people think carefully about the message, are influenced because they find the arguments compelling

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43
Q

peripheral route to persuasion

A

people don’t scrutinize the message, are influenced by other factors, such as speakers attractiveness, message’s emotional appeal

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44
Q

which persuasion route leads to longer lasting attitude change?

A

Central route

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45
Q

under what conditions will someone follow the central route

A

message is personally relevant
they have high need for cognition
they are uncertainty orientated

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46
Q

characteristics of uncertainty orientated people

A

look for a new information, particularly in new/unpredictable situations

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47
Q

under what conditions does the mere presence of other people enhance performance?

A

The task is simple/well learned

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48
Q

under what conditions does the mere presence of other people impair performance?

A

when the task is difficult/complex

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49
Q

social facilitation

A

an increased tendency to perform ones dominant response in the mere presence of others

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50
Q

social norms

A

shared expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave

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51
Q

social role

A

A set of norms that characterizes how people in a given social position ought to behave

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52
Q

role conflict

A

The norms accompanying different roles clash

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53
Q

are norms the same across all cultures?

A

no

Social norms are arbitrary

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54
Q

conformity

A

The adjustment of individual behaviors, attitudes, and believes to a group standard

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55
Q

informational social influence

A

we follow the opinion/behavior of others because we believe that they have accurate knowledge and what they’re doing is “right”

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56
Q

normative social influence

A

we conform to be accepted by others and avoid rejection

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57
Q

factors that affect conformity

A

Group size

Presence of a dissenter

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58
Q

at what group size are participants likely to conform

A

four or five

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59
Q

what happens to conformity when the consequences of being incorrect are higher?

A

conformity decreases

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60
Q

under what conditions is the minority most likely to influence the majority

A

The minority is:

Highly committed to their point of view
Independent in the face of majority pressure
Consistent over time
Appear to keep an open mind

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61
Q

milgrams experiment

A

participants controlled the amount of voltage administered to an actor. even if the actor screamed, and the participant was uncomfortable with continuing, they would continue if the experimenter told them to

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62
Q

factors that influence destructive obedience

A

1) remoteness of the victim
2) closeness/legitimacy of authority figure
3) cog in a wheel
4) personal characteristics

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63
Q

norm of reciprocity

A

when someone treats us well, we should respond in kind

64
Q

door in the face technique

A

making a large request, expecting it to be rejected

Then making a smaller request, which is more likely to be accepted

65
Q

foot in the door technique

A

The persuader gets you to comply with the small request first

Later presents a larger request

66
Q

lowballing

A

persuader get you to commit some action, but before you actually perform the behavior, they increase the “cost” of that same behaviour

67
Q

what are the four common compliance techniques

A

norm of reciprocity
Door in the face technique
Foot in the door technique
Lowballing

68
Q

deindividuation

A

Loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour

69
Q

social loafing

A

The tendency for people to expend less effort when working in a group than when working alone

70
Q

collective effort model

A

on a collective task, people put forth effort only to the extent that they expect their effort to contribute to obtaining a valued goal

71
Q

factors that increase likeliness of social loafing

A

1) people believe that individual performance isn’t being monitored
2) The task/goal has less value/meaning to the person
3) The group is less important to the person
4) The task is simple, the person’s input is redundant

72
Q

does social loafing occur more in all male groups or all female grips?

A

all male groups

73
Q

does social loafing occur more strongly in individualistic cultures or collectivistic cultures

A

individualistic

74
Q

Group polarization

A

when a group of like-minded people discuss an issue, the “average” opinion of the members tends to become more extreme

75
Q

causes of group polarization

A

normative social influence

Informational social influence

76
Q

normative social influence

A

individuals are motivated to adopt a more extreme position to gain the groups approval

77
Q

informational social influence

A

during discussions, people hear arguments that support their position, that they had not previously considered, further cementing their beliefs

78
Q

groupthink

A

The tendency for group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement

79
Q

causes of groupthink

A

1) high stress to reach a decision
2) Insulated from outside input
3) directive leader who promotes their personal agenda
4) high cohesion

80
Q

symptoms of groupthink

A

1) illusion of invulnerability
2) pressure on dissenters
3) self censorship
4) illusion of unanimity
5) self appointed mind guards

81
Q

consequences of groupthink

A

1) incomplete survey of alternatives
2) incomplete survey of objectives
3) failure to examine risks of preferred choice
4) Poor information search
5) failure to reappraise alternatives

82
Q

according to evolutionary viewpoints, why are humans such social creatures?

A

individuals who were predisposed to affiliate were more likely to survive and reproduce than those who are reclusive

83
Q

four basic reasons that we affiliate

A

1) obtain positive stimulation
2) receive emotional support
3) gain attention
4) permit social comparison

84
Q

social comparison

A

comparing our beliefs, feelings, and behaviours with those of other people in order to determine whether our responses are “normal”

85
Q

how does fear influence affiliation

A

fear inducing situations increase our desire to be with others

86
Q

how and why does proximity influence affiliation and attraction?

A

proximity increases chance of encounters, contributing to mere exposure effect

we interact more with people who are physically closer

87
Q

mere exposure effect

A

repeated exposure to a stimulus tends to increase our liking for it

88
Q

support for “birds of a feather flock together”

A

people are most often attracted to others who are similar to themselves

89
Q

do “opposites attract”?

A

not really

These relationships don’t last as long

Increased risk of “fatal attractions”

90
Q

fatal attractions

A

we initially find some characteristic of another person appealing, but over time we come to dislike it

91
Q

does physical attractiveness have an affect on affiliation

A

yes

In an experiment, people’s desire to date the partners they met depended more on the partners physical attractiveness than on any other characteristic

92
Q

what are two factors that may underlie the desire to affiliate more with attractive people

A

1) “What’s beautiful is good”; we often assume that attract people have more positive characteristics
2) we are often judged by the company we keep, so we may prefer to associate with attractive people to boost self-esteem

93
Q

matching effect

A

we are more likely to date someone of equal attractiveness

94
Q

social exchange theory

A

course of our relationship is governed by rewards and costs

95
Q

outcome of relationship

A

words - costs

96
Q

what standards are outcomes evaluated against

A

comparison level

Comparison level for alternatives

97
Q

comparison level

A

The outcome that a person has grown to expect in relationships

98
Q

comparison level for alternatives

A

focusses on potential alternatives to the relationship

99
Q

what do males prefer in a mate

A

physical attractiveness
Domestic skills
Younger mates
More likely to pursue more short term romantic encounters

100
Q

what do females prefer in a mate

A

earning potential
Status
Ambitiousness
older mate

101
Q

passionate love

A

intense emotion, arousal, and yearning for the partner

102
Q

companionate love

A

affection, deep caring about partners well-being, commitment to being there for each other

103
Q

triangular theory of love

A

intimacy, commitment, passion

104
Q

consummate love

A

Love that occurs when intimacy, passion, and commitment are all present

105
Q

cognitive arousal model of love

A

when we experience high arousal in the presence of someone we perceive as attractive, we may conclude that we are “falling in love”

106
Q

transfer of excitation

A

arousal due to one source is misattributed as being due to another source

107
Q

prejudice

A

negative attitude towards people in a certain group

108
Q

discrimination

A

treating people unfairly based on the group to which they belong

109
Q

cognitive processes that foster prejudice

A

categorization

stereotypes

110
Q

how does categorization foster prejudice

A

leads to the perception of in groups and out groups

111
Q

what types of biases do we display because of in groups and out groups

A

in group favoritism
out Group derogation
Outgroup homogeneity

112
Q

in group favouritism

A

A tendency to favour in group members and attribute more positive qualities to “us”

113
Q

Outgroup derogation

A

tendency to attribute more negative qualities to “them”

114
Q

outgroup homogeneity

A

we tend to see members of outgroups as all being the same

115
Q

what are the motivational roots of prejudice

A

competition and conflict

enhancing self-esteem

116
Q

realistic conflict theory

A

competition for limited resources fosters prejudice

117
Q

T/F a threat to one’s personal welfare is the prime motivator for prejudice

A

false

research says prejudice is triggered a perceived threat to ones ingroup

118
Q

social identity theory

A

prejudice stems from a need to enhance our self esteem

119
Q

stereotype threat

A

stereotypes make stereotyped group members fear that they will “live up” to the stereotype

ex: the stereotype of “all asians are good at math” can make an asian person afraid to get interested in math, in fear that they’re living up to the stereotype

120
Q

how do self fulfilling prophecies and stereotype threat perpetuate prejudice

A

if someone believes a stereotype/has a prejudice about another group, they will act in such a way that confirms their beliefs about the people in that group

ex: a racist interviewer treats black applicants differently; sits further back, shorter interviews. this can make the black person perform more poorly bc of stereotype threat

121
Q

equal status contract

A

prejudice between ppl is most likely to be reduced when they

1) have sustained close contact
2) have equal status
3) work to achieve a common goal
4) are supported by broad social norms

122
Q

did de-segregation of american schools reduce prejudice against black people? why or why not?

A

no

conditions of equal status contact were not met

123
Q

cooperative learning programs

A

children are put into multiracial learning groups where close contact is sustained and they all have to work together

124
Q

results of “shooter bias” study

A

participants (black and white) were more likely to shoot unarmed suspects who were black

125
Q

norm of social responsibility

A

people should help others and contribute to the welfare of society

126
Q

pro social behaviour

A

helping others

127
Q

how does social learning influence prosocial behaviour

A

norm of reciprocity and social responsibility

we are reinforced when we adhere, met with disapproval when we don’t

so we internalize these norms as own own values, and they enable self reinforcers

128
Q

self reinforcers

A

pride, self praise, feelings of satisfaction

129
Q

empathy altruism hypothesis

A

altruism does exist, and it is produced by empathy

130
Q

empathy

A

putting yourself in someone else’s shoes

131
Q

negative state relief model

A

high empathy makes us feel distressed over others’ suffering, so to reduce our own distress, we help them

132
Q

five step process of bystander intervention

A

1) notice an event
2) interpret the event as an emergency
3) assume responsibility for helping
4) know how to help
5) decide to help

133
Q

how do we decide if an event is an emergency?

A

engaging in social comparison

134
Q

social comparison

A

we look around to see how others are responding, and act the same way as them

135
Q

diffusion of responsibility

A

if others are present, you can feel like someone else will help, so you don’t have to

136
Q

why might someone decide not to help?

A

because of the perceived costs of helping

ex: physical danger, appearing foolish

137
Q

bystander effect

A

the presence of multiple bystanders inhibits a persons tendency to help

138
Q

what factors increase our likeliness to help

A

1) good mood
2) pre-existing guilt
3) observing helpful role model
4) lack of time pressure

139
Q

what factors increase a persons likeliness to receive our help

A

1) similarity - if they’re like us, we’re more likely to help them
2) gender - women more likely to receive help than males from male bystanders
3) perceived responsibility - ppl who are perceived as not responsible for their situation are more likely to be helped (ppl who are homeless from natural disaster vs. ppl who are homeless from not working)
like

140
Q

just world hypothesis

A

the belief that the world is fair, and ppl get what they deserve

so, “rape victims deserved to get raped”

141
Q

T/F mandatory volunteerism increases prosocial behaviour

A

~

no definitive results, we don’t quite know

142
Q

what is the evolutionary basis of aggression?

A

aggression at appropriate times helped our ancestors compete successfully for mates, resources, and fighting back

143
Q

what brain regions play a role in agression?

A

hypothalamus
amygdala
frontal lobes

144
Q

what body chemicals play a role in aggression

A

serotonin

145
Q

do highly aggressive people have higher or lower frontal lobe activity?

A

lower

146
Q

what body chemicals and levels play a role in aggression

A

low serotonin

high testosterone

147
Q

frustration – aggression hypothesis

A

frustration leads to aggression

All aggression is the result of frustration

148
Q

is the frustration – aggression hypothesis correct?

A

no, these assertions have been disproved

people don’t always respond to frustration with aggression, they can exhibit despair, resignation, etc.

aggression can be increased by a wide range of aversive stimuli

149
Q

identify some major types of environmental stimuli that increase the risk of aggression

A

painful stimuli
Provocation
Crowding
Heat

150
Q

discuss how reinforcement contributes to aggression

A

children whose aggressive behaviour produced positive outcomes were more likely to be aggressive in the future

Children whose aggressive behaviour produced negative outcomes were less likely to be aggressive in the future

151
Q

how does modelling contribute to aggression

A

in the Bobo doll experiment, children learned how to be aggressive

152
Q

what cognitive factors determine whether we will respond to a stimulus aggressively

A

1) we perceive their behaviour as intentional
2) Low empathy
3) inability to regulate our emotions

153
Q

principle of catharsis

A

performing an act of aggression discharges aggressive energy and temporarily reduces our impulse to aggress

154
Q

support for the principle of catharsis

A

people with overcontrolled hostility, show little immediate reaction to provocation, but then after time, they can erupt into violence after a trivial provocation

155
Q

according to the social learning viewpoint, what role does media violence play in regulating human aggression

A

media violence increases the tendency of people to behave aggressively

156
Q

based on research, how does media violence affects people’s behaviour and attitude’s?

A

viewers learn new aggressive behaviours through modeling

Viewers come to believe that aggression is rewarded/rarely punished

Viewers become desensitized to violence and suffering

Viewers have an increased fear of becoming a target of crime/violence

PSYCO 105 (8 decks)

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