Chapter 12 - Development over the Lifespan Flashcards
what does developmental psychology do
examine changes in our biological, physical, and behavioural processes as we age
cross-sectional design
comparing people of different ages at the same point in time.
pros of cross-sectional design
Data from many age groups can be collected quickly
cons of cross-sectional design
different age groups grew up in different historical periods. Thus the results may be due to environmental differences, rather than ageing
what is a cohort
an age group
longitudinal design
repeatedly test the same cohort as it grows older
cons of longitudinal design
Time consuming
Sample may shrink as people drop out of study, move, die.
results may be due to developmental experiences unique to the cohort, not due to ageing
sequential design
combines cross-sectional and longitudinal
repeatedly test several age cohorts as they grow older
cons of sequential design
most time-consuming and costly
pros of sequential design
most comprehensive
what are the three types of research designs that psychologists use to investigate age related changes?
cross-sectional design
Longitudinal design
Sequential design
adolescence
period of development and gradual transition between childhood and adulthood
what age range is adolescence
12 to 18 years olds
what age range is young adulthood
20 to 40 years old
what age range is middle adulthood
40 to 60 years old
what age is late adulthood
65 and older
what is the puberty landmark in girls
The first menstrual flow
what is the puberty landmark in boys
sperm production and the first ejaculation
T/F The hormones that steer puberty affect brain function, mood, and behaviour
true
does early maturation result in fewer negative outcomes for boys or for girls?
boys
what happens to the brain in adolescence
overall growth slows, while still establishing new neural connectionsPrunes away at a massive number of other connections, streamlining neural networks
T/F vision, hearing, reaction time, coordination or at peak levels in the mid-20s
true
T/F Active visual field begins to shrink in the 20s
true
T/F during middle adulthood, muscles become weaker and stiffer, base metabolic rate slows down
true
what is menopause, when does it occur
ovaries stop producing estrogen, lose their fertilityAround age 50
do men ever hit an age where they are no longer fertile?
no, but with age, reduced fertility
adolescent egocentrism
A self absorbed and distorted view of one’s uniqueness and importance
what are the parts of adolescent egocentrism
overestimating the uniqueness of their feelings and experiencesFeeling like everybody is watching how they look and what they do
T/F adolescents who think more egocentrically are less likely to engage in risky behaviours
false more likely
what happens to reasoning and information processing in adolescence
abstract reasoning abilities increaseProcess information fasterMore efficient working memoryBetter able to ignore distracting infoBetter focus
post formal operational thinking
people can reason logically about opposing points of views and accept contradictions and irreconcilable differences
what happens to information processing and memory in adulthood
decline in reaction timeMemory for the new info declinesSpatial memory declinesRecall declines prospective memory declines
fluid intelligence
ability to perform mental operations(Abstract and logical reasoning, solving special problems)
crystallized intelligence
verbal skills and factual knowledge
what happens to fluid intelligence in adulthood
decline at an earlier age than crystallized intelligence
T/F adults who retain their level of cognitive functioning, tend to engage in more cognitively stimulating jobs and personal activities
true
what are the different ways to classify the identity status of an adolescent/young adult
identity diffusionForeclosureMoratoriumIdentity achievement
identity diffusion
hadn’t yet gone through an identity crisisunconcerned about identity issues
foreclosure
individuals have not yet gone through an identity crisis because they had committed to an identity and set of values before experiencing a crisis
moratorium
these people want to establish a clear identity, currently experiencing a crisis but hasn’t resolved it
identity achievement
they had gone through an identity crisis, successfully resolved it, emerge with a coherent set of values
T/F The majority of teens report not enjoying spending time with their parents
false
T/F most adolescents believe that if they have a serious problem, they can’t confide in their parents
false
T/F those who report more conflict with parents also display more risky behavior, more antisocial behavior, lower self-esteem
true
T/F Peer pressure supporting misconduct has a stronger affect then peer pressure against misconduct
false
what is the major developmental challenge of early adulthood
intimacy versus isolationThis is the period of adulthood in which many people for close friendships, fall in love, and marry
what is The major developmental challenge of middle adulthood
Generativity versus stagnationdoing things for others and making the world a better place
what is the major developmental Challenge in late adulthood
integrity versus despairpeople are either fulfilled with their life or regret that they had not lived their lives in a more fulfilling way
what are characteristics of a successful marriage
emotional closenessPositive communication and problem-solvingAgreement on basic values and expectationsWillingness to accept and support changes in the partner
what happens to marital satisfaction after a baby is born
decreases in the year or two after the first child is born
T/F most middle aged couples experience the “empty nest” symptoms (depression after all the children leave home)
false
T/F married people tend to live longer and be happier than unmarried adults
true
what are the stages we go through regarding establishing a career
growth stageExploration stageEstablishment stagemaintenance stageDecline stage
growth stage
from childhood through mid 20sForm initial impressions about the types of jobs we like or dislike
exploration stage
after growth stage, we form tentative ideas about a preferred career and pursue the necessary education or training
establishment stage
mid 20s to mid-40sThey begin to make their markMay experience some job instability/changing careers
maintain and stage
careers become more stable
decline stage
peoples investment in work tends to decrease,They eventually retire
is the “Midlife crisis” phenomenon true?
there is not sufficient evidence to suggest so
under what conditions can retirement cause psychological problems
they have strong work values and miss their jobsmarital stress can increase after a spouse retires, especially if the other spouse still working
what are the five stages of coping with impending death
denialAngerBargainingdepressionAcceptance
are infants nearsighted, have normal vision, or farsighted
very nearsighted
preferential looking procedure
studying what infants prefer to look at by recording their eyes to see how long they looked at each stimulus.
do infants prefer complex patterns or simple patterns
complex
what do newborns do when presented with off-center auditory and tactile, and olfactory targets
they turn towards it
do infants prefer looking at novel (new) things or familiar things?
novel
T/F since infants enjoy looking at novel things more, they prefer seeing a female strangers face over their mothers face
false
can newborns learn through classical conditioning?what study exemplifies this?
yesby following a tap to the head with feeding the baby milk, the baby came to associate getting a tap on the head with getting fed.
can newborns learn through operant conditioning? what study exemplifies this?
yesbabies learned to suck a plastic nipple in a certain pattern to be rewarded with their mothers voice
can newborns learn through imitation? how do we know
yesnewborns will often imitate adult facial expressions, like sticking their tongue out after seeing an adult do it
how well does visual acuity develop?
improves continually & rapidly
how well does sound localization develop?
in a U shapedisappears in 2nd month of life, returns in month 4 or 5
T/F newborns can’t detect changes in sounds from languages that their parents don’t speak
false
cephalocaudal principle
The tendency for development to proceeding to head to foot directionWhy babies have big heads
proximodistal principle
development begins along the innermost parts of the body, continues towards the outermost partsarms develop before handsat birth, infants can control shoulders, not arms or hands
maturation
The genetically programmed biological processes that governs our growth
is maturation the only thing that influences development?
noThere are environmental and cultural influences as well
what are some environmental influences that affect development
dietPhysical touchExperience
how does physical touch affect development
massaging premature and full-term human infants accelerates their weight gain and neurological development
how does experience affect development
infants that were given practice with either sitting or stepping learned how to walk two months earlier than control groups
how does culture influence development
in cultures were parents restrict walking experience, infants walk laterIn cultures where parents exercise their walking, infants walk sooner
what is a schema
an organized pattern of thought and actionIt’s like an internal framework that guides our interaction with the world
what are the two key processes involved with cognitive development and schemas
assimilationAccommodation
assimilation
New experiences incorporated into existing schemasLike a child calling a horse a “Big dog”
accommodation
when new experiences cause schemas to changeLike a child realizing that the “big dog” (horse) doesn’t bark, sit, fetch. Forcing the schema to change
what are the stages in Piaget’s stage model for cognitive growth
1) sensorimotor stage2) Preoperational stage3) concrete operational stage4) formal operational
what age range is the sensorimotor stage
from birth to two years old
what occurs in the sensorimotor stage
understands world through sensory and motor experiencesachieves object permanence acquire language
what age range is the preoperational stage
2 to 7 years old
what happens in the preoperational stage
symbolic thinking/pretend playcan label and represent simple conceptsdon’t understand conservationthinking displays irreversibilityexhibit centrationthinking displays egocentricism
conservation
The principle that basic properties of objects stay the same even though their outward appearance may change
irreversibility
it is difficult for children in preoperational stage to reverse an action mentally
Centration
focussing on only one aspect of the situation
egocentrism
difficulty in viewing the world from someone else’s perspective
what age range is the concrete operational stage
7 to 12 years old
what happens in the concrete operational stage
can think about concrete eventsDifficulty with hypothetical or abstract reasoning understand conservation, reversibilityLess centrationUnderstand serial ordering
what age range is the formal operational stage
12 years old and onwards
what happens in the formal operational stage
think logically about both concrete and abstractThink more flexibly
what is wrong with Piaget’s theory
children get many skills at an earlier age than Piaget believeddevelopment does not proceed in distinct stagesculture influences development.all children don’t necessarily follow this path
what does it mean when we say development does not proceed in distinct stages
A child may perform at the pre-operational level on one task but solve another task at a concrete operational level
what does it mean when we say culture influences cognitive development
Western culture focusses on scientific logical thinkingMany other cultures focus on relational thinking and social skills
zone of proximal development
The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance from an adult or more advanced peer
why is the zone of proximal development important
it shows us that people can help to move a child’s cognitive development forward
what did vygotsky do?
introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development
what information processing approaches get better as children age
information search strategiesProcessing speed, attention, response inhibition Working memory, long-term memory
theory of mind
A persons beliefs about the mind and the ability to understand other people’s mental states
when do children begin to have an understanding about other people’s mental states
starts to develop around age 4By age 6, most children understand
T/F those who understand false believes are more likely to lie
true
T/F parents can tell when their child is lying
false
T/F police and others trained in lie detection can tell when children are lying
false
T/F when young children try to elaborate on lies, their lying becomes more detectible
true
emotional regulation
The process by which we evaluate and modify our emotional reactions
temperament
A biologically-based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviourally to the environment ex: calm and happy, irritable and fussy
T/F all infants are born with the same temperament
false
behavioural inhibition
A temperament that involves shynesstendency to withdraw when exposed to unfamiliar people, places, objects, and sounds
T/F highly inhibited infants tend to become sociable and talkative seven-year-olds
false
highly inhibited infants develop into quiet, cautious, and shy seven-year-olds
true
what did Eric Erickson do
developed a model of how personality develops, where each stage deals with the different “crisis”
what are the major psychosocial stages
Basic trust vs basic mistrust Autonomy vs shame and doubtinitiative vs guilt industry vs inferiority identity vs role confusion intimacy vs isolation generativity vs stagnation integrity vs despair
what age is the basic trust versus basic mistrust
first year
what is the basic trust versus basic mistrust stage
depending on how much love and attention we get during the first year of life, we develop a basic trust or mistrust of the world
what age is the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage
1 to 2 years old
what is the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage
children are ready to exercise their individualityIf parents restrict children or make harsh demands during this time, children develop shame and doubt about their abilities, lack courage to be independent later
what age is the initiative versus guilt stage
3 to 5 years old
what is the initiative versus guilt stage
children are very curious. If allowed to explore, develop initiative. If held back or punished, develop guilt, suppress curiosity
what age is the industry versus inferiority stage
6 to 12 years old
what is the industry versus inferiority stage
Children experiencing pride and encouragement, develop industryRepeated failure and lack of praise, develop inferiority
imprinting
A sudden, biologically primed form of attachment
T/F imprinting involves a critical period
true
what does attachment mean, when referring to humans
The strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers
T/F there is a post birth critical period When contact is required for infant caregiver bonding
false
is it possible to form strong first attachments to caregivers later in childhood?
yes
T/F infant – caregiver bonding results primarily from the mother’s role in providing nourishment
false
T/F contact comfort is more important in fostering attachment than the provision of nourishment
true
what are the three phases in which attachment develops during infancy
indiscriminate attachmentDiscriminate attachmentSpecific attachment behaviour
indiscriminate attachment
newborns cry, vocalize, and smile to everyone, to receive care from adults
discriminate attachment
three-month-old infants direct their attachment behaviours towards familiar caregivers over strangers
specific attachment behaviour
7 to 8 month olds develop their first meaningful attachment to specific caregivers
stranger anxiety
distress over contact with unfamiliar people
separation anxiety
distress over being separated from a primary caregiver
what are the types of attachment that an infant can display
Secure attachmentInsecure attachment
what are the types of insecure attachment
anxious resistantAnxious avoidant
Secure attachment
distressed when mother leavesHappy when she returns
anxious resistant
fearful and attention demanding when mother is presentDistressed when mother leavesDoesn’t calm down when she returns
anxious avoidant
show few signs of attachmentRarely cry when mother leavesDoesn’t seek contact when she comes back
T/F female isolate monkeys were highly abusive towards their firstborn’s
true
what was the difference between victor the wild boy, and the czech twins?
Victor was recovered at 12 years, showed limited recoveryThe twins were recovered at age 7, full recovery
what are the differences between early and late adoptees
late adopter is show more insecure attachment behaviors, more behaviour problems, lower IQ scores, more parental stressAlso, late adoptees show more indiscriminate friendly behaviour
what does indiscriminate friendly behaviour indicate
lack of specific attachment
T/F infancy is a sensitive period
true
what does a high-quality daycare have
stimulating environmentWell-trained caretakerFew children her caretakerLow staff turnover
T/F high quality childcare disrupts infant attachment to parents
false
T/F children who experience childcare have better social behaviour then children who are raised by just their mothers
false
T/F children who experience childcare have better cognitive performance then those raised exclusively by their mothers
false
T/F among those in childcare, children exposed a higher quality care had better cognitive performance
true
styles of parenting
authoritativeAuthoritarianIndulgentNeglectful
authoritative parenting
controlling but warmEstablish rules and enforce themReward compliance with warmth and affection
authoritarian parenting
controlling and cold
what are children with authoritative parents like
high self-esteemHigher achieversFewer conduct problems
what are children with authoritarian parents like
lower self-esteemLess popular with peersPerform more poorly in schools
indulgent parenting
warm and permissiveDon’t provide guidance and discipline
neglectful parenting
permissive and cold
what are children with indulgent parents like
immatureSelf-centered
what are children with neglectful parenting like
insecure attachmentLow motivationDisturb relationships with peers and adultsImpulsiveAggressive
what parenting style is associated with the most positive childhood outcomes
authoritative
what parenting style is associated with the most negative developmental outcomes
neglectful
gender constancy
The understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of a person
at what age do children develop a basic gender identity (labeling themselves and others as being either a boy or a girl)
2 to 3 years old
socialization
The process by which we acquired a believes, values, and behaviours of a group
sex typing
treating others differently based on whether they are female or male
T/F fathers are more likely to encourage their children to take risks and explore their environment
true
T/F fathers use more physical and verbal probation with sons then daughters
true
T/F parents are more likely to believe that sons have a greater interest in science, even when their sons and daughters display equal interest in the subject
true
by what age is stereotyped thinking firmly in place
8
androgynous gender identity
when traditionally masculine and feminine traits are blended within a single person
when do children show flexible thinking about gender
during the transition to adolescence
what did Lawrence Kohlberg do
develop a theory of moral reasoning3 stages, with 2 sub stages each
what were the stages of Kohlberg’s moral reasoning model
PreconventionalConventionalPostconventional
Preconventional moral reasoning
based on anticipated punishments or rewards
very conventional moral reasoning stage one
focussed on punishment”Steal the drug, if wife dies, he’ll get into trouble”
Preconventional moral reasoning stage two
focussed on rewards”Steal drug, because then wife will still be with him”
conventional moral reasoning
based on conformity to social expectations, laws, and duties
conventional moral reasoning stage three
conformity stems from the desire to gain peoples approval”People will think he’s bad if he doesn’t steal the drug to save his wife”
conventional moral reasoning stage four
Believe that the laws must be obeyed because the rules need to be followed”Steel drug, it’s his duty to take care of his wife”
Postconventional moral reasoning
based on well thought out, general moral principles
Postconventional moral reasoning stage five
recognizing importance of societal laws, but taking individual rights into account”Stealing is illegal, but reasonable because he saved a life”
Postconventional moral reasoning stage six
based on abstract, ethical principles of justice”Saving life comes before financial gain. The law in this case is unjust”
problems with Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning
Western cultural biasMale bias
what are the three stages of prenatal development
Germinal stageEmbryonic stageFetal stage
when is the germinal stage
first two weeks of developmentBegins one sperm fertilizes egg.
zygote
fertilized egg
when is the embryonic stage
from the second week to the eighth week
what happens to the zygote in the germinal stage
undergoes repeated cell division, becomes mass of cells that attach to the uterus
what happens to the cell mass in the embryonic stage
it is now called the embryostarts developing placenta and umbilical cordorgans and systems begin to formfacial features can be recognized
what does the placenta do
contain membranes that allows nutrients to pass from mom’s blood to umbilical cord
what does umbilical cord do
Carry nutrients and oxygen to embryoCarry waste products to the mother
when is the foetal stage
ninth week until birth
what happens to the embryo in the foetal stage
it’s called a fetusBody systems continue to developMuscles become stronger
what is the age of viability
28 weeksLikeliness to survive in case of premature birth
how many chromosomes does a gamete (sperm or egg) have
23
how many chromosomes does a zygote have
46or23 pairs
what is the 23rd chromosome in an egg?
an X chromosome
what is the 23rd chromosome in a sperm?
50% of the time it’s an X50% of the time it’s a Y
what is a genetic females 23rd pair of chromosomes?
XX
what is a genetic males 23rd pair of chromosomes?
XY
what is the TDF?
testis determining factor gene
where is the TDF found?
in the Y chromosome
what does the TDF do?
triggers development of testes
when does the TDF gene activate
6 to 8 weeks after conception
what happens once testes are developed
testes secrete sex hormones (androgens)androgens continue to direct male development
teratogens
environmental agents that cause abnormal prenatal development
T/F STD’s can pass from mother to child
true
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
range of cognitive, behavioral, and physical deficits caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol
fetal alcohol syndrome
facial abnormalitiesSmall, malformed brainsIntellectual disabilityAttentional and perceptual deficitsImpulsivityPoor social skills
T/F it is safe for a pregnant woman to drink so long as she only drinks half a glass of wine per day or less
false no amount of prenatal alcohol exposure or has been confirmed to be absolutely safe
T/F nicotine is a teratogen
true
T/F babies of moms who used heroin or cocaine while pregnant are often born addicted
true
