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PSYC 309 > Chapter 13 > Flashcards

Chapter 13 Flashcards

1
Q

Judgement

A

an assessment of quantity

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2
Q

Reasoning

A

the process of drawing conclusions

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3
Q

Decision

A

the process of choosing between alternatives

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4
Q

How are judgements, reasoning, and decisions related?

A

decisions are based on our judgements and applying our judgements involve different reasoning processes

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5
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

primary mechanism in making judgements; the process of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations and evidence

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6
Q

Characteristic of conclusions reached from inductive reasoning

A

conclusions that are probably but not definitely true

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7
Q

3 factors that contribute to the strength of an inductive argument

A

representativeness of observations to members of its category, number of observations, quality of evidence

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8
Q

What instances do we use inductive reasoning?

A

anytime we make a prediction about what will happen based on observations about what has happened

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9
Q

Just noticeable difference

A

the smallest change in quantity that can be noticeable

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10
Q

Weber-Fechner law

A

the size of the JND is a constant ratio of the reference stimulus (larger reference = larger JND); people are more sensitive to proportional differences than absolute differences

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11
Q

Heuristics

A

mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgements and decisions quickly or; rules of thumb that are likely to provide the correct answer but aren’t foolproof

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12
Q

What are the big 3 heuristics?

A

availability, representativeness, affect

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13
Q

Availability heuristic

A

events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily recalled

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14
Q

Illusory correlations

A

when a relationship between two events appears to exist but, in reality, there is no relationship between them or it is weaker than assumed to be

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15
Q

Stereotypes

A

oversimplified generalizations about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative

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16
Q

Disadvantage of availability heuristic

A

makes us fear rare events and fail to anticipate more frequent dangers

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17
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

the likelihood that an instance is a member of a larger category depends on how well it resembles properties typically associated with the category

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18
Q

Base rate

A

the relative proportion of different classes in the population; prevalence of an event or characteristic within its population

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19
Q

Conjunction rule

A

the probability of a conjunction of two events cannot be higher than the probability of single constituents

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20
Q

Law of large numbers

A

the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

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21
Q

Myside bias (Lord)

A

a type of confirmation bias wherein people evaluate evidence in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes

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22
Q

Confirmation bias

A

when people look for information that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore information that refutes it

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23
Q

Backfire effect

A

an individual’s support for a particular viewpoint could become stronger when faced with corrective facts opposing their viewpoint

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24
Q

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic

A

people make numerical estimates by using a reference as a starting point and adjusting from there

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25
Q

In what conditions does the anchoring and adjustment heuristic still occur?

A

occurs even when people know the reference number is false or believe that it was randomly selected, and when people are experts

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26
Q

Deductive reasoning (Aristotle)

A

determining whether a conclusion logically follows from statements; starts with broad principles to make logical predictions about specific cases

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27
Q

Syllogism

A

consists of two broad statements or premises followed by a conclusion

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28
Q

When is a syllogism valid?

A

when the form of the syllogism indicates that its conclusion follows logically from its two premises (not necessarily true)

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29
Q

Belief bias

A

tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable and vice versa

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30
Q

When are conclusions in syllogisms definitely true?

A

only if both premises are definitely true and if the form of syllogism is valid

31
Q

Mental model approach (Johnson-Laird)

A

people use mental models to solve deductive reasoning problems

32
Q

Mental model

A

a specific situation represented in a person’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning

33
Q

How do people determine validity of syllogisms using a mental model?

A

they generate a tentative conclusion from the model then modify it until there are no exceptions

34
Q

Basic principle behind the mental model theory

A

a conclusion is valid only if it cannot be refuted by any model of the premises

35
Q

Categorical vs conditional syllogisms

A

both have two premises and a conclusion but former begins with all, some, or no and latter has the form “if…then”

36
Q

What is the first premise of all four types of conditional syllogisms?

A

if p, then q

37
Q

Modus ponens syllogism

A

if p, then q - p - therefore, q; “the way that affirms by affirming;” 97% correctly classified this as valid

38
Q

Modus tollens syllogism

A

if p, then q - not q - therefore, not p; “the way that denies by denying;” 60% correctly classified this as valid

39
Q

Invalid types of conditional syllogisms

A

(a) q - therefore, p; (b) not p - therefore, not q; 40% correctly classified each as invalid

40
Q

Wason four card problem

A

tasked to indicate which cards to turn over to test the rule: “if there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number of the other side”

41
Q

Falsification principle

A

to test a rule, it’s necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule

42
Q

Permission schema

A

if a person satisfies a specific condition, then they get to carry out an action

43
Q

Affect heuristic

A

inferring quantity from “gut feeling” and emotion instead of logic

44
Q

Disadvantages of using decision heuristics

A

they can be subjective and biased (take into account limited information)

45
Q

Sunk cost fallacy

A

choosing to push through with or finish something you have already invested time, effort, and resources in

46
Q

Expected utility theory

A

if people have all of the relevant information, the will make a rational decision that results in the maximum expected utility

47
Q

Utility

A

outcomes that achieve a person’s goals or the overall value for the decision maker

48
Q

Pros of expected utility theory

A

provides an objective benchmark to study decision making and is easy to model

49
Q

Cons of expected utility theory

A

biased prediction of real world behavior and can’t determine how different individuals define utility

50
Q

Expected emotions

A

emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome

51
Q

Risk aversion

A

tendency to avoid taking risks

52
Q

What increases the chance of risk aversion?

A

the tendency to predict that a particular loss will have a greater impact than a gain of the same size

53
Q

Why do people overestimate their negative response to loss?

A

they don’t take into account the coping mechanisms they may use to deal with it

54
Q

Incidental emotions

A

emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision; can be related to someone’s general disposition, environment, previous experience

55
Q

Opt-in procedure

A

requires a person to take an active step (e.g. signing an organ donor card)

56
Q

Status quo bias

A

tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

57
Q

Framing effect

A

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated or framed

58
Q

Effect of gain vs loss framework on decision making

A

when a decision is framed in terms of gains, people use a risk aversion strategy; when it is framed in terms of losses, people use a risk-taking strategy

59
Q

Neuroeconomics

A

combination of research from psychology, neuroscience, economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses

60
Q

Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky)

A

people tend to think in terms of gain and loss relative to a reference point, which are represented differently in the mind

61
Q

How do gain frameworks affect one’s reference point?

A

they tend to shift the reference point downwards as people tend to choose the choice that is more certain yet smaller in amount rather than take a risk

62
Q

Endowment effect

A

over-valuation of one’s current possessions due to ownership

63
Q

Ultimatum game

A

a proposer makes an offer as to how a sum of money should be split between them and a responder; the game is over when the responder decides whether to accept the offer or reject it and they both receive nothing

64
Q

Findings of ultimatum game

A

people are less likely to get angry and reject low offers with an unfair computer proposer than with an unfair person

65
Q

What area of the brain is activated when responders make their decisions in the ultimatum game?

A

right anterior insula, between the parietal and temporal lobes, is more strongly activated when responders reject an offer than when they accept; PFC is activated for both

66
Q

Role of PFC in decision making

A

implements decision to reject unfair offers

67
Q

Hindsight bias

A

tendency to overestimate our ability to have foreseen an outcome

68
Q

Dual systems approach (Kahneman)

A

there are two mental systems: a fast, automatic, intuitive system (system 1) and a slower, more deliberate, thoughtful system (system 2)

69
Q

Hiatus heuristic

A

used when deciding on target consumers; “if a customer made a purchase within the last N months, they are active”

70
Q

Recognition heuristic

A

recognition indicates a higher value on a particular criterion (e.g. NYC is said to have a larger population than Park city)

71
Q

Fluency heuristic

A

an extension of recognition heuristic that helps us decide among self-generated options; choosing the choice that is recognized fastest if all choices are recognized

72
Q

Take-the-first heuristic

A

do the first thing that comes to mind

73
Q

Largest decision heuristic

A

take the two furthest apart crime scenes and draw a circle through them in order to track criminals; more accurate than other strategies until >9 crimes are involved

74
Q

When is the heuristic approach better than rational models of decision making?

A

better under uncertainty and when the parameters are unknown

PSYC 309 (13 decks)

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