Chapter 12: Problem solving & creativity Flashcards
Problem
when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal, and the solution is not completely obvious
Problem solving according to Gestalt psychologists
it’s about how people represent a problem in their mind and how solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation
Restructuring
changing the way a problem is represented, which is the outcome of a process called insight
Insight
any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person’s mental representation of a situation to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious
What comprises the representation of a problem?
what facts are specified, what is being asked in a problem, and the methods one can use to solve it
Routine or non-insight problem solving
a methodical approach wherein learned knowledge or techniques are used to solve a problem; more likely to know how close the solution is
Non-routine or insight problem solving
known strategies don’t guarantee a solution but offer the possibility of success; unaware of how near a solution is as it typically occurs suddenly
Analytically based problems
problems solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience
Mental set
typical way of looking at a problem or preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
Fixation
people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution
Functional fixedness
fixating on the typical or familiar uses of an object resulting in failure to see novel uses
Examples of functional fixedness
candle problem (Duncker): failure to realize empty boxes used as containers can also be used as support to place candles on a corkboard; two-string problem (Maier): failure to realize that pliers can be used to create a pendulum in order to tie two strings
Findings of the water jug problem (Luchins)
majority of participants in the no mental set group didn’t use simpler solutions to fill jugs to their desired quantities
Initial state vs goal state
conditions at the beginning of the problem and the solution of the problem
Operators
actions that take the problem from one state to another (e.g. moving a disc to another peg in the tower of Hanoi problem); usually governed by rules
Problem space
all possible states that can occur when solving a problem (initial state, intermediate states, goal state)
Means-end analysis
method of problem solving in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states by establishing subgoals for intermediate states
Information-processing approach (Simon and Newell)
problems can be solved in a stepwise manner to get from an initial state to a goal state using subgoals and there are several possible pathways
Mutilated checkerboard problem
whether a checkerboard that originally contains 64 squares can be covered with 31 dominoes if we eliminate two corners (now 62 squares)
Findings on mutilated checkerboard problem
participants who were presented boards that emphasized the difference between squares solved the problem faster (e.g. bread and butter condition); impossible to solve because domino covers 2 squares that must be of different colors
Think-aloud protocol (Simon)
participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking as they are solving a problem
Analogical transfer
process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution from one problem to another
2 key terms used in research on analogical transfer
target problem (the problem that is being solved) and source problem (a problem similar to the target problem)
Duncker’s radiation problem
a doctor can either destroy a tumor with a high intensity ray and destroy the surrounding tissue OR use low intensity rays that are harmless to healthy tissue but will not destroy the tumor
3 steps of analogical problem solving (Gick and Holyoak)
(1) Noticing the analogous relationship between the target and source problems, though most need prompting (2) Mapping the correspondence between them (3) Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem
Most difficult steps in analogical problem solving
noticing and mapping
Analogical encoding
process by which two sample source stories are compared and similarities between them are determined to enhance their ability to solve the target problem
Trade-off strategy
negotiating strategy in which one person says “I’ll give you A if you give me B”
Contingency strategy
a negotiating strategy in which a person gets what they want if something else happens
Analogical paradox (Dunbar)
while it’s difficult to apply analogies in lab research, people routinely use them in real-world settings
Satisficing
heuristic wherein one chooses a path or goal that is sufficient rather than searching endlessly for one that is optimal
Who does better between optimizers and satisficers?
optimizers tend to have worse decision outcomes but most people do a mix of both
Structural features
underlying principles that govern the solution to a problem, which become more helpful to analogical problem solving if made more obvious
Experts
people who have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in a particular field through devotion and practice
Advantage of experts over novices
their ability to organize knowledge based on principles resulted in more effective problem solving
Disadvantage of being an expert
may be less open to new ways of looking at problems and less proficient at solving problems that require flexible thinking
Value approach to creativity
defined as “anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility”; only does well in describing creativity involved in designing products but not visual art, music, or theatre
Divergent thinking
thinking that is open-ended and involves a large number of potential solutions
What did Kaufman add to the definition of creativity?
a creative solution to a problem must be useful, not just original
Stages in the process of creative problem solving
problem generation (problem and fact finding), problem formulation (problem definition and idea finding), problem solving (evaluation and selection, and planning), solution implementation (selling idea and taking action)
How does knowledge affect creativity?
too much knowledge or preconceptions can inhibit creativity
Group brainstorming (Osborn)
people in a group are asked to say whatever ideas come to mind without criticism in order to encourage thinking outside the box
Disadvantage of group brainstorming
results in fewer ideas than if people were to brainstorm individually
Creative cognition (Finke)
method of individual idea generation wherein people invent objects and interpret their function according to different categories
Preinventive forms
ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product
Incubation
sudden insight after taking time off from problem solving (e.g. mind wandering)
Relationship between the default mode network and creativity
the DMN directly facilitates creativity as it is activated when performing an alternate uses task
Role of executive control network in creativity
though ECN is usually involved in non-creative processes like working memory and fluid intelligence, it may be needed to disengage from bad ideas; stronger functional connectivity with DMN in creative people
Nine dot problem
have to draw four straight lines that pass through all dots without lifting your pen from the paper or retracing a line
Effect of deactivating left anterior temporal lobe in creativity
deactivating the left ATL and increasing activation of the right ATL caused participants to think outside the square in nine dot problem
Kounios’ argument in “The Prepared Mind”
whether a problem is solved through insight or an analytical process is associated with the brain’s state just before the problem is presented
Compound remote-associate problem
three words are presented and participants have to think of a word that would make sense paired up with each of the presented words either by insight or analytically
Finding of compound remote-associate task
EEG activity increased in the frontal lobe right before insight solutions and in the occipital lobe before analytical solutions; both before problem was presented
Alternate or unusual uses task
participants have 2 mins to think of unusual uses for common objects; performance increased after incubation with an easy task and remained unchanged with a hard task
When are the DMN and the ECN involved in creativity?
both are more strongly activated and coordinated during idea evaluation than during generation
Volitional daydreaming
act of choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have a positive outcome
Ways to increase creativity
daydreaming (e.g. taking a walk or a shower), solitude, mindfulness, produce lots and consume lots
Mindfulness
the simple process of actively noticing new things and paying attention to the present moment, intentionally and nonjudgementally
Focused attention meditation
focusing on one thing, like your breathing, and bringing your attention back to it when your mind inevitably wanders
Result of FA meditation
decreases distractions and mind wandering, which inhibits creativity
Open monitoring meditation
paying attention to whatever comes to mind and following those thoughts until something else comes along; resulted in better performance in AUT and greater activation of DMN
What did Kaufman and Gregoire call the DMN?
imagination network
