Chapter 12: Problem solving & creativity

Question 1

Problem

Answer 1

when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal, and the solution is not completely obvious

Question 2

Problem solving according to Gestalt psychologists

Answer 2

it’s about how people represent a problem in their mind and how solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation

Question 3

Restructuring

Answer 3

changing the way a problem is represented, which is the outcome of a process called insight

Question 4

Insight

Answer 4

any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person’s mental representation of a situation to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious

Question 5

What comprises the representation of a problem?

Answer 5

what facts are specified, what is being asked in a problem, and the methods one can use to solve it

Question 6

Routine or non-insight problem solving

Answer 6

a methodical approach wherein learned knowledge or techniques are used to solve a problem; more likely to know how close the solution is

Question 7

Non-routine or insight problem solving

Answer 7

known strategies don’t guarantee a solution but offer the possibility of success; unaware of how near a solution is as it typically occurs suddenly

Question 8

Analytically based problems

Answer 8

problems solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience

Question 9

Mental set

Answer 9

typical way of looking at a problem or preconceived notion about how to approach a problem

Question 10

Fixation

Answer 10

people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

Question 11

Functional fixedness

Answer 11

fixating on the typical or familiar uses of an object resulting in failure to see novel uses

Question 12

Examples of functional fixedness

Answer 12

candle problem (Duncker): failure to realize empty boxes used as containers can also be used as support to place candles on a corkboard; two-string problem (Maier): failure to realize that pliers can be used to create a pendulum in order to tie two strings

Question 13

Findings of the water jug problem (Luchins)

Answer 13

majority of participants in the no mental set group didn’t use simpler solutions to fill jugs to their desired quantities

Question 14

Initial state vs goal state

Answer 14

conditions at the beginning of the problem and the solution of the problem

Question 15

Operators

Answer 15

actions that take the problem from one state to another (e.g. moving a disc to another peg in the tower of Hanoi problem); usually governed by rules

Question 16

Problem space

Answer 16

all possible states that can occur when solving a problem (initial state, intermediate states, goal state)

Question 17

Means-end analysis

Answer 17

method of problem solving in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states by establishing subgoals for intermediate states

Question 18

Information-processing approach (Simon and Newell)

Answer 18

problems can be solved in a stepwise manner to get from an initial state to a goal state using subgoals and there are several possible pathways

Question 19

Mutilated checkerboard problem

Answer 19

whether a checkerboard that originally contains 64 squares can be covered with 31 dominoes if we eliminate two corners (now 62 squares)

Question 20

Findings on mutilated checkerboard problem

Answer 20

participants who were presented boards that emphasized the difference between squares solved the problem faster (e.g. bread and butter condition); impossible to solve because domino covers 2 squares that must be of different colors

Question 21

Think-aloud protocol (Simon)

Answer 21

participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking as they are solving a problem

Question 22

Analogical transfer

Answer 22

process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution from one problem to another

Question 23

2 key terms used in research on analogical transfer

Answer 23

target problem (the problem that is being solved) and source problem (a problem similar to the target problem)

Question 24

Duncker’s radiation problem

Answer 24

a doctor can either destroy a tumor with a high intensity ray and destroy the surrounding tissue OR use low intensity rays that are harmless to healthy tissue but will not destroy the tumor

Question 25

3 steps of analogical problem solving (Gick and Holyoak)

Answer 25

(1) Noticing the analogous relationship between the target and source problems, though most need prompting (2) Mapping the correspondence between them (3) Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem

Question 26

Most difficult steps in analogical problem solving

Answer 26

noticing and mapping

Question 27

Analogical encoding

Answer 27

process by which two sample source stories are compared and similarities between them are determined to enhance their ability to solve the target problem

Question 28

Trade-off strategy

Answer 28

negotiating strategy in which one person says “I’ll give you A if you give me B”

Question 29

Contingency strategy

Answer 29

a negotiating strategy in which a person gets what they want if something else happens

Question 30

Analogical paradox (Dunbar)

Answer 30

while it’s difficult to apply analogies in lab research, people routinely use them in real-world settings

Question 31

Satisficing

Answer 31

heuristic wherein one chooses a path or goal that is sufficient rather than searching endlessly for one that is optimal

Question 32

Who does better between optimizers and satisficers?

Answer 32

optimizers tend to have worse decision outcomes but most people do a mix of both

Question 33

Structural features

Answer 33

underlying principles that govern the solution to a problem, which become more helpful to analogical problem solving if made more obvious

Question 34

Experts

Answer 34

people who have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in a particular field through devotion and practice

Question 35

Advantage of experts over novices

Answer 35

their ability to organize knowledge based on principles resulted in more effective problem solving

Question 36

Disadvantage of being an expert

Answer 36

may be less open to new ways of looking at problems and less proficient at solving problems that require flexible thinking

Question 37

Value approach to creativity

Answer 37

defined as “anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility”; only does well in describing creativity involved in designing products but not visual art, music, or theatre

Question 38

Divergent thinking

Answer 38

thinking that is open-ended and involves a large number of potential solutions

Question 39

What did Kaufman add to the definition of creativity?

Answer 39

a creative solution to a problem must be useful, not just original

Question 40

Stages in the process of creative problem solving

Answer 40

problem generation (problem and fact finding), problem formulation (problem definition and idea finding), problem solving (evaluation and selection, and planning), solution implementation (selling idea and taking action)

Question 41

How does knowledge affect creativity?

Answer 41

too much knowledge or preconceptions can inhibit creativity

Question 42

Group brainstorming (Osborn)

Answer 42

people in a group are asked to say whatever ideas come to mind without criticism in order to encourage thinking outside the box

Question 43

Disadvantage of group brainstorming

Answer 43

results in fewer ideas than if people were to brainstorm individually

Question 44

Creative cognition (Finke)

Answer 44

method of individual idea generation wherein people invent objects and interpret their function according to different categories

Question 45

Preinventive forms

Answer 45

ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product

Question 46

Incubation

Answer 46

sudden insight after taking time off from problem solving (e.g. mind wandering)

Question 47

Relationship between the default mode network and creativity

Answer 47

the DMN directly facilitates creativity as it is activated when performing an alternate uses task

Question 48

Role of executive control network in creativity

Answer 48

though ECN is usually involved in non-creative processes like working memory and fluid intelligence, it may be needed to disengage from bad ideas; stronger functional connectivity with DMN in creative people

Question 49

Nine dot problem

Answer 49

have to draw four straight lines that pass through all dots without lifting your pen from the paper or retracing a line

Question 50

Effect of deactivating left anterior temporal lobe in creativity

Answer 50

deactivating the left ATL and increasing activation of the right ATL caused participants to think outside the square in nine dot problem

Question 51

Kounios’ argument in “The Prepared Mind”

Answer 51

whether a problem is solved through insight or an analytical process is associated with the brain’s state just before the problem is presented

Question 52

Compound remote-associate problem

Answer 52

three words are presented and participants have to think of a word that would make sense paired up with each of the presented words either by insight or analytically

Question 53

Finding of compound remote-associate task

Answer 53

EEG activity increased in the frontal lobe right before insight solutions and in the occipital lobe before analytical solutions; both before problem was presented

Question 54

Alternate or unusual uses task

Answer 54

participants have 2 mins to think of unusual uses for common objects; performance increased after incubation with an easy task and remained unchanged with a hard task

Question 55

When are the DMN and the ECN involved in creativity?

Answer 55

both are more strongly activated and coordinated during idea evaluation than during generation

Question 56

Volitional daydreaming

Answer 56

act of choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have a positive outcome

Question 57

Ways to increase creativity

Answer 57

daydreaming (e.g. taking a walk or a shower), solitude, mindfulness, produce lots and consume lots

Question 58

Mindfulness

Answer 58

the simple process of actively noticing new things and paying attention to the present moment, intentionally and nonjudgementally

Question 59

Focused attention meditation

Answer 59

focusing on one thing, like your breathing, and bringing your attention back to it when your mind inevitably wanders

Question 60

Result of FA meditation

Answer 60

decreases distractions and mind wandering, which inhibits creativity

Question 61

Open monitoring meditation

Answer 61

paying attention to whatever comes to mind and following those thoughts until something else comes along; resulted in better performance in AUT and greater activation of DMN

Question 62

What did Kaufman and Gregoire call the DMN?

Answer 62

imagination network