Chapter 12-Problem Solving And Creativity Flashcards
Problem
An obstacle between a present state and a goal
Gestalt Approach
Representing a problem in the mind
Restructuring: changes the problems representation
Kohler’s “circle” problem
Insight in problem solving
Sudden realization of a problems solution
Often requires restructuring the problem
Metcalfe and Wiebe
Insight: triangle and chain problem
Noninsight: algebra
Warmth judgements every 15 seconds
Metcalfe and Wiebe results
Insight problems solved suddenly (produced a greater “don’t know” in beginning)
Noninsight problems solved gradually
Obstacles to problem solving
Functional fixedness
Mental set
Functional fixedness
Restricting use of an object to its familiar function
Candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports
Two string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight
Mental set
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
Based on a person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)
E.g. water jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using a simpler solution
Information processing approach
Newell and Simon
Problem space: (involves SEARCH)
- initial state
- intermediate states
- goal state
Operators
Tower of Hanoi
Actions taking the problem from one state to another.
There are rules that specify which moves are allowed and which are not
Means-end analysis
Reduce differences between initial and goal states
Subgoals: create intermediate states closer to goal
The importance of how a problem is stated: mutilated-checkerboard problem
Conditions differed in how much information was provided about the squares
Easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem
Butter-bread condition easiest, blank condition hardest
Think-aloud protocol
Used in checkerboard experiment
- Say aloud what one is thinking
- shift in how one perceives elements of a problem
Analogical Problem Solving
Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to new problem
- Russian marriage problem (source problem)
- mutilated checkerboard problem (target problem)
Analogical transfer
The transfer from one problem to another
Source problem to target problem
Gick and Holyoak-analogical transfer
Notice relationship
Mapping correspondence between source and target
Applying mapping
Surface features versus structural features
Surface features are perceptual
Structural features go beyond perceptual (underlying methods)
Surface features get in the way whereas structural features must be used
Duncker’s radiation problem
Radiation and fortress story have same structural features, but different surface features
Can apply fortress solution to radiation problem to solve it
Lightbulb problem
Regular version: High surface similarities (laser and Ray) aid analogical problem solving
80% participants knew radiation problem can solve lightbulb problem
30% participants knew fortress problem can solve lightbulb problem
Insufficient intensity version: making structural features more obvious aids analogical problem solving
Participants who read fragile-glass version of light bulb problem can transfer to radiation problem (80%) but participants who read insufficient intensity version cannot transfer to radiation problem (10%)
Analogical Encoding
Comparing two cases that illustrate a principle (structure)
- negotiation solutions (trade off and contingency)
- one compared two cases using trade off solution and the other compared two cases using contingency
- when given a new case, they used their original solution to solve the new problem
Analogical paradox
It can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real world settings
In vivo problem solving research
People are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world
Advantages: naturalistic setting
Disadvantages: time consuming, cannot isolate and control variables
How experts solve problems
- solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners
- possess more knowledge about their fields
Knowledge is organized so it can be accessed when needed to work on a problem
Novice: surface features
Expert: structural features
- Experts spend more time analyzing problems
- are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field
- less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems (checkers)
Creativity
- innovative thinking
- novel ideas
- new connections between existing ideas
- divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential “solutions”
