Ch 4- Cognition, Consciousness, Language Flashcards
“The study of _____ looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world.”
Cognition
What are the 4 key components (pillars) of the information processing model?
- Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
- Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making
- Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification)
- Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem”
“is the development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan.”
Cognitive Development
_______ was one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology.
Jean Piaget
insisted that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think, and thus divided the lifespan into four stages of cognitive development:”
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
How did page say infants learn?
Through instinctual interaction with the environment
What is a schema according to Jean Piaget?
“A schema can include a concept (What is a dog?), a behavior (What do you do when someone asks you your name?), or a sequence of events (What do you normally do in a sit-down restaurant?)”
“Piaget theorized that new information is processed via _______
Adaptation
Adaptation comes about by 2 complimentary processes: Assimilation and Accommodation
According to Piaget, ______ is the process of classifying new information into existing schemata. If the new information does not fit neatly into existing schemata, then accommodation occurs.
_________ is the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.”
“Assimilation; Accommodation is the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.”
What is the first stage of Piagets stages and what happens
“sensorimotor stage, starting at birth and lasting until about two years of age. In this stage, a child learns to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs.”
“Primary circular reactions are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb; usually, the behavior is repeated because the child finds it soothing. Secondary circular reactions occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair. These behaviors are often repeated because the child gets a response from the environment (such as a parent picking up the dropped toy). ”
In the first stage of Piaget (Sensorimotor) what are the 2 different types of circular reactions? (named for their repetitive nature)
“Primary circular reactions are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb; usually, the behavior is repeated because the child finds it soothing.
Secondary circular reactions occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair.
These behaviors are often repeated because the child gets a response from the environment (such as a parent picking up the dropped toy). ”
What is the key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage (piaget)
Object permanence
“Object permanence marks the beginning of representational thought, in which the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.”
“Object permanence marks the beginning of ________, in which the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.”
Representational Thought
The pre-operatational stage lasts from what age and what is it characterized by
“lasts from about two to seven years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.”
“Symbolic thinking refers to the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination. Egocentrism refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel. Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation”
________ refers to the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination.
_______ refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel.
______ is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation”
“Symbolic thinking; Egocentrism; Centration
“The preoperational stage lasts from about two to seven years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.”
The Concrete operational stage lasts from what age and what is it characterized by
7 to 11;
“In this stage, children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others. ”
So no egocentrism or contration
“Additionally, they are able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. These children have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly.”
The Formal operational stage lasts from what age and what is it characterized by
Starts at 11;
“marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas. Generally coinciding with adolescence, this stage is marked by the ability to reason
about abstract concepts and problem-solve.”
What is Piagets pendulum experiment?
“Children were given a pendulum in which they could vary the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the height of the swing. They were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing. Children in the concrete operational stage manipulated the variables at random and even distorted the data to fit preconceived hypotheses. Adolescents, on the other hand, were able to hold all variables but one constant at a given time, proceeding methodically to discover that only the length of the string affects the frequency.
“Lev Vygotsky, a prominent educational psychologist proposed what relating to what drives cognitive development?
“proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language.”
Relating to intelligence, what are the 2 different types of intelligences and what are they?
“Fluid intelligence consists of problem-solving skills, while crystallized intelligence is more related to use of learned skills and knowledge. ”
“Fluid intelligence was shown to peak in early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence peaked in middle adulthood. Regardless, both types of intelligence have been shown to decline with age.”
“is rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes
Delirium
What is a mental set
“the tendency to approach problems in the same way.”
What is the first step to solving a problem?
Frame the problem (“create a mental image or schematic of the issue._ Then generate potential solution and begin to test them
What is Dunckers Candle Problem?
“You walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle. Your task is to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be used without the wax dropping on the floor.”
Concept is Problem-solving can be impeded by an inappropriate mental set, as well as by functional fixedness”
“Functional fixedness can thus be defined as the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.”
In psychology what are 4 different types of problem solving?
- Trial and Error
- Algorithms
- Deductive Reasoning
- Inductive Reasoning
“is a less sophisticated type of problem-solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work.
Trial and Error
While an educated approach may be used, this type of problem-solving is usually only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions.”
A form of problem solving where there is a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.”
Algorithm
“These can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce the desired solution.”
_______ starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. (General to specific)
“Deductive (top-down) reasoning
“Remember that a deduction is a solution that must be true based on the information given. This is why answers on the MCAT that merely might be true (but don’t have to be) are never the correct answer.”
“Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning seeks to create a theory via generalizations. This type of reasoning starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them
______ is a type of problem solving which seeks to create a theory via generalizations. This type of reasoning starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them.”
“Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning
What are the tools we use indecision making process
Heuristics, Biases, Intuition, and Emotions
“are simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called rules of thumb. ”
Heuristics
“ The availability heuristic is used when we try to decide how likely something is.
“ As an example, answer the following question: Are there more words in the English language that start with the letter “K” or that have “K” as their third letter?”
“Most people approach this question by trying to think of words that fit into each category. Because we’re so used to classifying words by their first letter, it is easier to think of words beginning with “K.” Thus, in this case, the availability heuristic tends to lead to an incorrect answer.”
“The representativeness heuristic involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category. ”
“The representativeness heuristic involves
categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category. ”
“ Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information is called the base rate fallacy.”
What is the disconfirmation principle
“the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work.
“When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded.”
What is confirmation bias?
“the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them. ”
“also contributes to overconfidence, or a tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible. ”
What is overconfidence
a tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible. ”
“can be defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence.”
Intuition
“Often, people may have beliefs that are not necessarily supported by evidence, but that a person “feels” to be correct.”
Knowing which patient is having an MI without seeing an EKG is intuition: This intuition can be more accurately described by the recognition-primed decision model
“is the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation. ”
Emotion
How a person feels often influences how a person thinks and makes decisions.”
“emotions that a person expects to feel from a particular decision are also involved. For example, if a person believes a car will make them feel more powerful, he or she may be more likely to purchase that car.”
__________ is one of the most all-encompassing definitions of intelligence… with seven defined types of intelligence:
linguistic, logical–mathematical, musical, visual–spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. ”
“Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
“Gardner argues that Western culture values the first two abilities over the others (linguistic and logical-math)
“Gardner’s multiple intelligences include
linguistic
logical–mathematical, musical
visual–spatial
bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal intrapersonal
What is the original formula for calculating IQ?
IQ= (mental age/Chronological Age) x 100
“is one’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world.”
Consciousness
What are the accepted states of consciousness?
Alertness, Sleep, Dreaming, Altered
“is a state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think. In this state, we are able to perceive, process, access information, and express that information verbally. ”
Alert
“In the alert state, we also experience a certain level of physiological arousal. Cortisol levels tend to be higher, and electroencephalogram (EEG) waves indicate a brain in the waking state.”
“Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert. A brain injury that results in disruption of these connections results in coma.”
“There are four characteristic EEG patterns correlated with different stages of waking and sleeping:
beta, alpha, theta, and delta waves.”
“There is a fifth wave that corresponds to REM sleep, which is the time during the night when we have most of our dreams. These sleep stages form a complete cycle lasting about 90 minutes.”
How long do sleep stage cycles usually last for
90 minutes
_____ and _____ waves characterize brain wave activity when we are awake”
“Beta and alpha waves
“Beta waves have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration. Beta waves occur when neurons are randomly firing.
“Alpha waves occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves. Alpha waves are also more synchronized than beta waves.”
______ have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration. Occur when neurons are randomly firing.
______ occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves.
Beta Waves; Alpha Waves
“Beta and alpha waves characterize brain wave activity when we are awake”
Alpha waves are also more synchronized than beta waves.”
“As soon as you doze off, you enter ______, which is detected on the EEG by the appearance of ____ _____
Stage 1; Theta Waves
“At this point, EEG activity is characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages.”
“As you fall more deeply asleep, you enter Stage 2 with sleep spindles and K complexes”
“Remember the sequential order of these brain waves—beta, alpha, theta, delta—by combining their first letters to form BAT-D and remember that a bat sleeps during the day.”
“As you fall even more deeply asleep, you enter Stages 3 and 4, also known as
slow-wave sleep (SWS)
“EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen. These low-frequency, high-voltage sleep waves are called delta waves”
“ SWS has been associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation, as well as increased growth hormone release.”
“Remember the sequential order of these brain waves—beta, alpha, theta, delta—by combining their first letters to form BAT-D and remember that a bat sleeps during the day.”
“Stages 1 through 4 of sleep are all part of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep; rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is when
interspersed between cycles of the NREM sleep stages”
“In this stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed. It is also called paradoxical sleep because one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep. ”
“Remember the sequential order of these brain waves—beta, alpha, theta, delta—by combining their first letters to form BAT-D and remember that a bat sleeps during the day.”
What is the arousal level of REM Sleep
“In this stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed. It is also called paradoxical sleep because one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep.
“Recent studies have associated REM more with procedural memory consolidation and SWS with declarative memory consolidation.”
What is a sleep cycle?
“ refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages.
“Early in the night, SWS predominates as the brain falls into deep sleep and then into more wakeful states. Later in the night, REM sleep predominates.
“Over the lifespan, the
length of the sleep cycle increases from approximately 50 minutes in children to 90 minutes in adults”
How does sleep cycle length change in lifespan
“Over the lifespan, the length of the sleep cycle increases from approximately 50 minutes in children to 90 minutes in adults”
“ Children also spend more time in SWS than adults.”
“Sleepiness can partially be attributed to blood levels of _____, a serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland”
Melatonin
“The retina has direct connections to the hypothalamus, which controls the pineal gland; thus, decreasing light can cause the release of melatonin.”
“Cortisol, a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex, is also related to the sleep–wake cycle. Its levels slowly increase during early morning because increasing light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus. ”
