Ch 3- Learning and Memory Flashcards
What is learning to a psychologist
“refers specifically to the way in which we acquire new behaviors.”
What is a stimulus
“anything to which an organism can respond, including all of the sensory inputs”
What is habituation
Decrease in response to a stimulus caused by repeated exposure to the same stimulus
“Dishabituation is defined as the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred. ”
What is dishabituation
“Dishabituation is defined as the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred. ”
“Dishabituation is temporary and always refers to changes in response to the original stimulus, not the new one.”
“Dishabituation is often noted when, late in the habituation of a stimulus, a second stimulus is presented.”
“ The second stimulus interrupts the habituation process and thereby causes an increase in response to the original stimulus.”
“Dishabituation is
the recovery of a response to a stimulus, usually after a different stimulus has been presented. Note that the term refers to changes in response to the original stimulus, not the new one.”
What are the 2 types of learning? (to know for mcat)
Associative and observational learning
“is a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli.”
Classical conditioning
“Any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response is called an ______ ______, and the innate or reflexive response is called an _____ _____
Excerpt From: Kaplan. “Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep).” iBooks.
unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response.”
“Many stimuli do not produce a reflexive response and are known as neutral stimuli.”
Stimuli that doesn’t produce a reflexive response are called
Neutral Stimuli
“a normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response is called a
conditioned response.”
Caused by the conditioned stimulus (the bell) (once a neutral stimulus)
What is acquisition
“the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus (food) to turn a neutral stimulus (bell-no salivation) into a conditioned stimulus (bell-salivation)”
“On the MCAT, the key to telling conditioned and unconditioned responses apart will be to
look at which stimulus is causing them: unconditioned stimuli cause an unconditioned response, while conditioned stimuli cause a conditioned response.”
How can the organism become habituated and cause extinction to occur?
“If the conditioned stimulus (bell) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (food) enough times”
Extinction of a response is not always permanent; after some time, if an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited, a phenomenon called
spontaneous recovery.
What is Generalization
is a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response.”
“In one famous experiment, researchers conditioned a child called Little Albert to be afraid of a rat by pairing the presentation of the rat with a loud noise. Subsequent tests showed that Little Albert’s conditioning had generalized such that he also exhibited a fear response to a white stuffed rabbit, a white sealskin coat, and even a man with a white beard.
What is the opposite of generalization?
Discrimination
Where “an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli.”
“Pavlov’s dogs could have been conditioned to discriminate between bells of different tones by having one tone paired with meat, and another presented without meat. In this case, association could have occurred with one tone but not the other.”
“Whereas classical conditioning is concerned with instincts and biological responses, operant conditioning does what
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors. ”
“Operant conditioning is associated with B. F. Skinner, who is considered the father of behaviorism, the theory that all behaviors are conditioned.
______ is associated with B. F. Skinner, who is considered the father of behaviorism, the theory that all behaviors are conditioned.
Operant conditioning
What is reinforcement
“is the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior.”
“Reinforcers are divided into two categories. Positive reinforcers increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior. Money is an example of a common and strong positive reinforcer: employees will continue to work if they are paid. Negative reinforcers act similarly in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant.”
What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcers increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior. Money is an example of a common and strong positive reinforcer: employees will continue to work if they are paid. Negative reinforcers act similarly in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant.”
“Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, which will be discussed in the next section, but remember that the frequency of the behavior is the distinguishing factor: any reinforcement—positive or negative—increases the likelihood that a behavior will be performed.”
In operant conditioning, negative reinforcers can be subdivided into
Escape Learning and avoidance learning
“which differ in the timing of the unpleasant stimulus. Taking aspirin is an example of escape learning: the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists, like a headache. Avoidance learning, on the other hand, is meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen. In fact, you are practicing avoidance right now: you are studying to avoid the unpleasant consequence of a poor score on the MCAT. ”
What is the difference between a primary reinforcer and a negative reinforcer
“Classical and operant conditioning can be used hand-in-hand. ”
A primary reinforcer is a reinforcement that uses the unconditioned stimuli (meat)
A secondary reinforcer is a reinforcement that uses the conditioned stimuli to reinforce a behavior (bell)
What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment
“Reinforcement is the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior.”
punishment uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior.”
What is the difference between positive and negative punishment
“Positive punishment adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior; for example, a thief may be arrested for stealing, which is intended to stop him from stealing again. Negative punishment is the reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed.”
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and positive punishment?
“Negative reinforcement is often confused with positive punishment. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a bothersome stimulus to encourage a behavior; positive punishment is the addition of a bothersome stimulus to stop a behavior.”
What is a fixed ratio-Schedule?
“reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior. For example, in a typical operant conditioning experiment, researchers might reward a rat with a food pellet every third time it presses a bar in its cage.”
“Continuous reinforcement is a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed.”
“Reinforcement schedules have two different factors: whether the schedule is fixed or variable, and whether the schedule is based on a ratio or an interval.
What is a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule?
“reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant. With this type of reinforcement schedule, researchers might reward a rat first after two button presses, then eight, then four, then finally six.”
What is a Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule
“reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed. For example, once our rat gets a pellet, it has to wait 60 seconds before it can get another pellet. The first lever press after 60 seconds gets a pellet, but presses during those 60 seconds accomplish nothing.”
“Variable-interval (VI) schedules”
“reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time. Instead of waiting exactly 60 seconds, for example, our rat might have to wait 90 seconds, then 30 seconds, then three minutes. In each case, once the interval elapses, the next press gets the rat a pellet.”
“Of these schedules, variable-ratio works the fastest, and is also the most resistant to extinction.
“VR stands for Variable-Ratio, but it can also stand for Very Rapid and Very Resistant to extinction.”
What is shaping?
“ the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors. For example, if you wanted to train a bird to spin around in place and then peck a key, you might first give the bird a treat for turning slightly to the left, then only for turning a full 90 degrees, then 180, and so on. Then you might only reward this behavior if done near the key until eventually the bird is only rewarded once the full set of behaviors is performed. While it may take some time, the use of shaping in operant conditioning can allow for the training of extremely complicated behaviors.”
What is latent learning
“Many organisms undergo latent learning; that is, learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced.”
What is problem solving method of learning
“Problem-solving is another method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach.”
“Humans and chimpanzees alike will often avoid trial-and-error learning and instead take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the challenges they face.
What is preparedness when it comes to learning
How well an animal is prepared to learn a new behavior based on predisposition to learn based on natural abilities and instincts
What is instinctive drift
Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors
What is observational learning
The process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
“ The most famous and perhaps most controversial study into observational learning is Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, in which children watched an adult in a room full of toys punching and kicking an inflatable clown toy”
“Like associative learning, there are a few neurological factors that affect observational learning. The most important of these are ”
mirror neurons.
“These neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action. ”
“Research suggests that observational learning through ______ is an important factor in determining an individual’s behavior throughout his or her lifetime. ”
Modeling
“People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them.”
What are the 3 major process of the formation of memories
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
“refers to the process of putting new information into memory.”
Encoding
Information gained without effort (like walking down the street and noticing things)
Automatic Processing
Compared to active memorization known as controlled (effortful) processing. (like mcat studying)
“With practice, controlled processing can become automatic. ”
What are the 3 different ways we can encode the meaning of information that requires controlled processing?
“We can visualize it (visual encoding), store the way it sounds (acoustic encoding), or put it into a meaningful context (semantic encoding).”
Semantic is strongest, Visual is the weakest
“When using semantic encoding, the more vivid the context, the better. In fact, we tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives, a phenomenon called the self-reference effect.”
“When using semantic encoding, the more vivid the context, the better. In fact, we tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives, a phenomenon called the
self-reference effect.”
“Another memory encoding aid aid is maintenance rehearsal, which is
the repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory”
“ another common way to memorize information often acronyms or rhyming phrases to provide vivd organization of the information we are trying to remember
Mnemonics
Two common methods are method of loci (location along a route) and peg word system
Another method is chunking (clustering)
What is chunking (clustering
“a memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning.
For example, consider the following list of 16 letters: E-N-A-L-P-K-C-U-R-T-R-A-C-S-U-B. Memorizing the list in order by rote might prove difficult until we realize that we can reverse the items and group them into meaningful chunks: BUS, CAR, TRUCK, PLANE.”
What are the main types of memory storage
Sensory (iconic & Echoic), Short-term, Working, Long-term (includes implicit and explicit)
What are the two types of sensory memory?
Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory)
“Sensory memory lasts only a very short time (generally under one second), but within that time our eyes and ears take in an incredibly detailed representation of our surroundings that we can recall with amazing precision. Of course, sensory memory fades very quickly, and unless the information is attended to, it will be lost
How long does short term memory last and how many items?
About 30 seconds with 7 items plus or minus 2 rule
“he capacity of short-term memory can be increased by clustering information, and the duration can be extended using maintenance rehearsal.”
“is closely related to short-term memory. It enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information. To do this, one must integrate short-term memory, attention, and executive function.
Working memory
This is the form of memory that allows us to do simple math in our heads.”
What is elaborative rehearsal
It is a way to put information into long term memory
“Unlike maintenance rehearsal, which is simply a way of keeping the information at the forefront of consciousness, elaborative rehearsal is the association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory.
Is tied closely to self-reference (what the information means to you)
“ideas that we are able to relate to our own lives are more likely to find their way into our long-term memory.”
What are the 2 types of long term memory
“Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) memory consists of our skills and conditioned responses.
Explicit (declarative) memory consists of those memories that require conscious recall.
Explicit memory can be further divided into semantic memory (the facts that we know) and episodic memory (our experiences).”
Explicit memory (long term memory) can be further divided into
semantic memory (the facts that we know) and episodic memory (our experiences).”
“the name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained. ”
Retrieval
“Most people think about retrieval in terms of recall, or the retrieval and statement of previously learned information, but learning can be additionally demonstrated by recognizing or quickly relearning information.”
the process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned (Which is far easier than recall)
“Recognition
This difference is something of which you can take advantage because the MCAT, as a multiple-choice test, is largely based on recognizing information. ”
“is another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory. In studying the memorization of lists, Hermann Ebbinghaus found that his recall of a list of short words he had learned the previous day was often quite poor. However, he was able to rememorize the list much more quickly the second time through.”
Relearning
“Ebbinghaus interpreted this to mean that the information had been stored, even though it wasn’t readily available for recall. ”
What is Ebbinghaus spacing effect?
The phenomenon he called after he discovered that the longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on.
How does the brain organize ideas?
Into a semantic network
“in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning, like an Internet encyclopedia wherein each page includes links for similar topics”
“For example, the concept of red might be closely linked to other colors, like orange and green, as well as objects, like fire truck and roses. When one node of our semantic network is activated, such as seeing the word red on a sign, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated, a process known as spreading activation. ”
What is spreading activation when it comes to memory?
When one node of our semantic network is activated, such as seeing the word red on a sign, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated like fire truck
“ Spreading activation is at the heart of a retrieval cue known as priming, in which recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory.”
A retrieval cue where Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place.”
Context effects
Context effects can go even further than this; facts learned underwater are better recalled when underwater than when on land.”
What is state-dependent memory?
Where a person’s mental state can affect recall”
“People who learn facts or skills while intoxicated, for example, will show better recall or proficiency when performing those same tasks while intoxicated than while sober. Emotions work in a similar way: being in a foul mood primes negative memories, which in turn work to sustain the foul mood.”
What is the serial position effect
“is a retrieval cue that appears while learning lists. When researchers give participants a list of items to memorize, the participants have much higher recall for both the first few and last few items on the list. ”
The tendency to notice the early or late items is known as the primacy and recency effect
Concerning the retrieval cue of serial position effect, the tendency to remember early and late items is known as
The primacy and recency effect
“when asked to remember the list later, people show strong recall for the first few items while recall of the last few items fades. Psychologists interpret this to mean that the recency effect is a result of the last items still being in short-term memory on initial recall.”
The most common disorder that can lead to a decline in memory
Alzheimers
“which is a degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus”
“While not perfectly linear, memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease tends to proceed in a retrograde fashion, with loss of recent memories before distant memories.”
What are the microscopic findings in alzheimer’s disease?
“neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques.”
What is Korsakoff syndrome and what does is effect?
A disorder that is caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain.
A form of MEMORY LOSS
“marked by both retrograde amnesia (the loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new memories).
Can also cause confabulation
What is confabulation? What disease can cause this?
“the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories.”
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
What is agnosia? What is it usually caused by?
“is the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though usually only one of the three.
Agnosia is usually caused by PHYSICAL damage to the brain, such as that caused by a stroke or a neurological disorder such as multiple sclerosis.”
What is memory decay
“memories are simply lost naturally over time as the neurochemical trace of a short-term memory fades.”
Ebbinhaus forgetting curve shows that “For a day or two after learning the list, recall fell sharply but then leveled off.”
In memory, What is the difference between Proactive and retroactive interference?
“When we experience proactive interference, old information is interfering with new learning.
“Retroactive interference is when new information causes forgetting of old information.”
What is prospective memory and how does it relate to memory in older people
“remembering to perform a task at some point in the future”
Event based tasks remain intact (remembering to buy milk when passing by the grocery store)
but time based prospective memory declines with age (remembering to take a medication every day at 7am)
What is an example of false memories
Confabulation
“a phenomenon in which we fill in gaps in our memories such that, over time and with enough rehearsal, our memories of the event can change drastically. ”
What is the misinformation effect
“In a famous experiment, participants were shown several pictures including one of a car stopped at a yield sign. Later, they were presented with written descriptions of the pictures, some of which contained misinformation, such as describing a car stopped at a stop sign. When asked to recall the details of the pictures, many participants insisted on having seen a stop sign in the picture.”
Can also be seen at the point of recall by using more descriptive langue which leads to overstate the severity
What is source amnesia
“is another memory construction error involving confusion between semantic and episodic memory: a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained. Source amnesia often manifests when a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else, and later recalls the story as having happened to him- or herself.”
“As infants, we are born with many more neurons than we actually need. As our brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli via a phenomenon called
neuroplasticity”
“Another way our brains change is through a process called synaptic pruning. As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains’ ability to process information.”
How do adult brains change during their lives?
“Another way our brains change is through a process called synaptic pruning. As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains’ ability to process information.”
What is the neurophysiological basis of long term memory?
Strengthening from long-term potentiation where as the stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density.”
______ is the process of becoming used to a stimulus. ________ can occur when a second stimulus intervenes, causing a resensitization to the original stimulus.”
“Habituation; Dishabituation
_______ is a way of pairing together stimuli and responses, or behaviors and consequences.”
“Associative learning
_______ is the acquisition of behavior by watching others.”
“Observational learning
_______ is the process of putting new information into memory.
Enconding
It can be automatic or effortful.
Semantic encoding is stronger than both acoustic and visual encoding.”
_________ and ______ are transient memory and are based on neurotransmitter activity.
______ memory requires short-term memory, attention, and executive function to manipulate information.”
Sensory and Short term; Working Memory
“requires elaborative rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity.”
Long-term memory
“Explicit (declarative) memory stores facts and stories.
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory stores skills and conditioning effects.”
_______ memory stores facts and stories.
_______ memory stores skills and conditioning effects.”
“Explicit (declarative);
Implicit (nondeclarative)
“responsible for the conversion of short-term to long-term memory, is the strengthening of neuronal connections resulting from increased neurotransmitter release and adding of receptor sites.”
Long Term Potentiation
