Ch 1- Biology & Behavior Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
“had one of the earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and even personality might be linked to brain anatomy. He developed the doctrine of phrenology. The basic idea was that if a particular trait was well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand.”
A
Franz Gall
2
Q
“ was the first person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain. He did this by extirpation on rabbits and pigeons, also known as ablation. In extirpation, various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed.”
A
“Pierre Flourens
Flourens’s work led to his assertion that the brain had specific parts for specific functions, and that the removal of one part weakens the whole brain.
3
Q
“known as the father of American psychology, believed that it was important to study how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment. His view was among the first theories that formed functionalism, a system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.”
A
William James
4
Q
What is functionalism?
A
A system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
5
Q
“ is another important name in functionalism because his 1896 article is seen as its inception. This article criticized the concept of the reflex arc, which breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts. Dewey believed that psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment.”
A
John Dewey
6
Q
“(1824–1880) added to the knowledge of physiology by examining the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage. He was the first person to demonstrate that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions.
A
Paul Broca
Broca found that a man who’d been unable to talk was unable to do so because of a lesion in a specific area on the left side of the brain. This area of the brain is now referred to as Broca’s area.”
7
Q
“was the first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse. By actually measuring the speed of nerve impulses in terms of reaction time, Helmholtz is often credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences.”
A
Hermann von Helmholtz
8
Q
“Around the turn of the century, Sir Charles Sherrington (1857–1952) first inferred the existence of synapses. Many of his conclusions have held over time—except for one. He thought that synaptic transmission was an electrical process, but we now know that it is primarily a chemical process.”
A
Sir Charles Sherrington
9
Q
“There are three kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system:
A
sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.”
10
Q
“Sensory neurons (also known as afferent neurons) transmit sensory information from receptors to the_____
Motor neurons (also known as efferent neurons) transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to ______
A
spinal cord and brain; muscles and glands”
“Interneurons are found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three types of neurons. ”
11
Q
is made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord, such as the 12 pairs of cranial and 31 pairs of spinal nerves”
A
PNS
12
Q
“The main role of the parasympathetic nervous system is to
A
conserve energy.”
13
Q
is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body.”
A
“Acetylcholine
14
Q
What are the 3 meninges
A
“the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mate”
DAP!!
15
Q
“In evolutionary terms, the hindbrain and midbrain were brain structures that developed earlier. Together they form the
A
brainstem
“sometimes referred to as the most primitive region of the brain”
16
Q
“ a group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory”
A
Limbic System
Developed later in evolutionary terms
“Aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain are all related to the limbic system. ”
17
Q
“The most recent evolutionary development of the human brain is the ____ _____, which is the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres.”
A
Cerebral Cortex
18
Q
“At first, the tube is composed of three swellings, which correspond to the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. Both the _____ and ____ later divide into two swellings, creating five total swellings in the mature neural tube.”
A
hindbrain and forebrain
19
Q
2 parts of the forebrain?
2 Parts of the hindbrain?
A
Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system)
Diencephalon (“thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland)
Myelencephalon (medulla)
Mesencephalon (pons/cerebellum)
20
Q
“During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon divides to form the myelencephalon (which becomes the ______) and the metencephalon (which becomes the _______). ”
A
medulla oblongata; pons and cerebellum
21
Q
“Rods and cones connect with ______, which highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones.
A
bipolar cells
22
Q
“is a lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. ”
A
Medulla
23
Q
“receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body. The midbrain is associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli”
A
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
“There are several prominent nuclei in the midbrain, two of which are collectively called colliculi. The superior colliculus receives visual sensory input, and the inferior colliculus receives sensory information from the auditory system. The inferior colliculus has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises.”
24
Q
“There are several prominent nuclei in the midbrain, two of which are collectively called _______.
A
Colliculi
25
In the midbrain, The _______receives visual sensory input, and the _______ receives sensory information from the auditory system. The inferior colliculus has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises.”
superior colliculus; inferior colliculus
26
“During prenatal development, the prosencephalon (forebrain) divides to form the _____ (which forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) and the ______ (which forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland).”
telencephalon; diencephalon
27
What is neuropsychology
“ refers to the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.”
“It is most often applied in research settings, where researchers attempt to associate very specific areas in the brain to behavior, and in clinical settings when patients are treated for brain lesions. Neuropsychology has its own experimental methodology and technology.”
28
“By using electrical stimulation, neurosurgeons can thus create ____ ____. This method relies on the assistance of the patient, who is awake and alert. Because there are no pain receptors in the brain, only local anesthesia is required”
Cortical Maps
29
“Electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons can be studied using an ________, which involves placing several electrodes on the scalp. Broad patterns of electrical activity can thus be detected and recorded.”
electroencephalogram (EEG)
30
What is regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
a noninvasive mapping procedure which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain. rCBF relies on the assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain regions of the brain, the blood flow to those regions increases.
31
“is a structure within the forebrain that serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell”
Thalamus
Part of the diancephalon
32
The hypothalamus is subdivided into what 3 parts?
“lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus,”
VAL
33
“serves homeostatic functions, and is a key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior”
Hypothalamus
“ is also the primary regulator of the autonomic nervous system and is important in drive behaviors: hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior.”
Feeding
Fighting
Flighting
Fucking
34
Part of the hypothalamus referred to as the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids”
Lateral Hypothalamus
“ In other words, the LH triggers eating and drinking. When this part of the hypothalamus is destroyed in lab rats, they refuse to eat and drink and would starve to death if not force-fed through tubes.”
“When the Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger.” (LH)
35
Region of the hypothalamus identified as the “satiety center,” and provides signals to stop eating”
Brain lesions here lead to obesity`
“The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
“When the VentroMedial Hypothalamus (VMH) is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry.” (VMH)
36
Part of the hypothalamus that controls sexual behavior. When the anterior hypothalamus is stimulated, lab animals will mount just about anything (including inanimate objects). In many species, damage here also leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity. also regulates sleep and body temperature.”
Anterior Hypothalamus
“When the AAAAAnterior hypothalamus is destroyed, one is AAAAAsexual.”
37
“comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones”
Posterior Pituitary
38
“the key player in several biological rhythms. Most notably, it secretes a hormone called melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms. Receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight.”
Pineal Gland
39
“coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information (via the extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and the spinal cord”
Basal Ganglia
“The extrapyramidal motor system gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system.”
40
Comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain and is primarily associated with emotion and memory. ”
Limbic System
41
What are the components of the limbic system?
“Its primary components include the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus.”
42
What is the septal nuclei?
Part of the limbic system. It contains one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain. Mild stimulation of the septal nuclei is reported to be intensely pleasurable; there is an association between these nuclei and addictive behavior.”
43
Part of the limbic system and is a structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage.
Amygdala
“When the amygdala is damaged, aggression and fear reactions are markedly reduced. Lesions to the amygdala result in docility and hypersexual states.”
44
What happens when there are lesions to the amygdala?
“When the amygdala is damaged, aggression and fear reactions are markedly reduced. Lesions to the amygdala result in docility and hypersexual states.”
45
What is the hippocampus
Part of the limbic system. “plays a vital role in learning and memory processes; specifically, the hippocampus helps consolidate information to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex.”
46
“The hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through a long projection called
the fornix. ”
47
What is anterograde Amnesia?
irreversible loss of memory for any new information.
This kind of memory loss is called anterograde amnesia and is characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories, whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact. ”
“The opposite kind of memory loss, retrograde amnesia, refers to memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury.”
48
“The outer surface of the brain is called the
cerebral cortex.
The cortex is sometimes called the neocortex, a reminder that the cortex is the most recent brain region to evolve.”
“ Rather than having a smooth surface, the cortex has numerous bumps and folds called gyri and sulci, respectively. The convoluted structure of the brain provides increased surface area. The cerebrum is divided into two halves, called cerebral hemispheres. ”
49
“ Rather than having a smooth surface, the cerebral cortex has numerous bumps and folds called ______, respectively. The convoluted structure of the brain provides increased surface area.
gyri and sulk
The cerebrum is divided into two halves, called cerebral hemispheres. ”
50
“The frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex is comprised of two basic regions:
the prefrontal lobes and the motor cortex. ”
“ The prefrontal cortex manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions. This region supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning. ”
51
“ The prefrontal cortex (part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex) does what functions
manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions. This region supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning. ”
52
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex (part of the frontal lobe) in memory?
Not to store memory but to remind the individual that he has something to remember at all
“To regulate attention and alertness, the prefrontal cortex communicates with the reticular formation in the brainstem, telling an individual either to wake up or relax, depending on the situation.”
53
What is the difference between an association area of the brain and a projection area
“association area is an area that integrates input from diverse brain regions. For example, multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a complex puzzle, to plan ahead for the future, or to reach a difficult decision. The prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe is a great example of this
Association areas are generally contrasted with projection areas, which perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks. Examples of projection areas include the visual cortex, which receives visual input from the retina, and the motor cortex, which sends out motor commands to the muscles.”
54
What can damage to the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe do to a person?
“more impulsive and generally less in control of his or her behavior, or depressed. It is not unusual, for instance, for someone with a prefrontal lesion to make vulgar and inappropriate sexual remarks, or to be apathetic.”
55
What is the central sulcus?
A fissure that divides the frontal and parietal lobe
56
Where is the primary motor cortex located?
On the pre central gyrus “(just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes)
“initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles. As such, it is considered a projection area in the brain.”
57
“The neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected, which can be visualized through the
motor homunculus”
58
Where is brocas area found?
Part of the frontal lobe
“Broca’s area is usually found in only one hemisphere, the so-called “dominant” hemisphere; for most people—both right- and left-handed—this is the LEFT hemisphere.”
59
Where is the somatosensory cortex located?
On the post central gyrus of the parietal lobe (past the central sulcus operating the frontal and parietal lobes)
Is involved in somatosensory information processing. This projection area is the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.”
60
“Despite certain differences, the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex are very closely related. In fact, they are so interrelated they sometimes are described as a single unit called
the sensorimotor cortex”
61
What is the CENTRAL region of the parietal lobe associated with?
spatial processing and manipulation.
This region makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in three-dimensional space, to do spatial manipulation of objects, and to apply spatial orientation skills such as those required for map-reading.”
62
The occipital lobe contains what cortex?
“contain the visual cortex, which is sometimes called the striate cortex.”
“Striate means furrowed or striped, which is how the visual cortex appears when examined under a microscope”
63
What are two important parts of the temporal lobe?
The auditory cortex and Wernicke's area
“The temporal lobe also functions in memory processing, emotion, and language. ”
64
What are the functions of the temporal lobe
“The temporal lobe also functions in memory processing, emotion, and language. ”
The auditory cortex and Wernicke's area is also here
“Studies have shown that electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe can evoke memories for past events”
“This makes sense because the hippocampus is located deep inside the temporal lobe”
The 2 lobes are not independent of one another
65
Examples of ipsilateral and contralateral control in the brain
“he motor neurons on the left side of the brain activate movements on the right side of the body (contralateral)
In other cases (for instance, hearing), cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body. In such cases, the hemispheres communicate ipsilaterally.”
66
How can we define the dominant hemisphere?
The one that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production
67
Which is the dominant hemisphere in most people?
LEFT!
95% of right handed ppl are left dom
72% of left hand people are left dom also
68
The dominant hemisphere (usually left) is primarily dealing with what type of functions?
“primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details. For instance, language, logic, and math skills are all located in the dominant hemisphere. Again, language production (Broca’s area) and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area) are primarily driven by the dominant hemisphere.”
69
The non dominant hemisphere (usually right) is associated with what?
“intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing. The nondominant hemisphere simultaneously processes the pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image. The nondominant hemisphere serves a less prominent role in language.
70
Where is acetylcholine found?
A neurotransmitter found in “both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine is used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles in the somatic part. It is the neurotransmitter used by the parasympathetic nervous system and a small portion of the sympathetic nervous system (for innervating sweat glands)”
71
What are the 3 catecholamines
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
“Due to similarities in their molecular composition, these three transmitters are also classified as monoanimes, or biogenic amines. The most important thing to know about the catecholamines is that they all play important roles in the experience of emotions.
“Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with depression; high levels are associated with anxiety and mania.”
72
“Low and high levels of norepinephrine are associated with
“Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with depression; high levels are associated with anxiety and mania.”
73
A catecholamine that plays an important role in movement and posture. High concentrations of dopamine are normally found in the basal ganglia, which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability.
Dopamine
74
What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?
“The dopamine hypothesis argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain. ”
75
Parkinson's diseases is associated with what pertaining to neurotransmitters?
“associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia. These disruptions of dopamine transmission lead to resting tremors and jerky movements, as well as postural instability.”
76
What is the role of serotonin?
“generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming.
Like norepinephrine, serotonin is thought to play a role in depression and mania. An oversupply of serotonin is thought to produce manic states; an undersupply is thought to produce depression.”
77
“The neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) plays a role in what?
produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain.
“GABA exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.”
78
What are neuromodulators?
Also called neuropeptides.
Are peptides involved in euro transmission.
“involves a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than that of regular neurotransmitters. Neuromodulators are therefore relatively slow and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than neurotransmitters. ”
The 2 most important neuromodulators are endorphins and enkephalines
79
Acetylcholine plays a role in what?
Voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic system as well as ATTENTION and ALERTNESS
80
“The adrenal cortex also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, such as
testosterone and estrogen.”
81
What is Innate behavior?
Behavior that is genetically programmed as a result of “evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience. ”
“In contrast, other behaviors are considered learned. Learned behaviors are not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment.”
82
What is the difference between Innate and Learned behavior?
Innate Behavior that is genetically programmed as a result of “evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience. ”
“In contrast, other behaviors are considered learned. Learned behaviors are not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment.”
83
When it comes to Genetics and behavior, what is adaptive value?
“the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.”
84
What are the 3 main methods of research that determines the degree of genetic influence in individual differences between people?
“family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies.”
85
What is a family study? What is it used for? What are the limitations?
A family study is a method of research that determines the degree of genetic influence in individual differences between people on the assumption that families are genetically more similar than non-family.
Researchers can compare rates of a given trait among family members to those among unrelated individuals”
Limitation is that families share both genetics and environment. Family studies cannot distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors; perhaps the increased rates of schizophrenia in families are a result of experiencing the same emotional climate in the home rather than genetically shared characteristics.”
86
What are concordance rates?
“refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.
MZ twins are genetically identical, sharing 100 percent of their genes, whereas DZ twins share approximately 50 percent of their genes.”
87
“refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait. MZ twins are genetically identical, sharing ___ percent of their genes, whereas DZ twins share approximately ____ percent of their genes.”
100%; 50%
88
How does neurulation occur?
“occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds”
“Cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called the neural crest, and will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues, including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid”
89
What is the function of the neural crest
“Cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called the neural crest, and will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues, including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid”
90
During neurolation, The remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube, which will ultimately form the _______.
central nervous system (CNS)
The neural tube has an alar plate, which differentiates into sensory neurons, and a basal plate, which differentiates into motor neurons.”
91
The neural tube has an alar plate, which differentiates into _______, and a basal plate, which differentiates into ______
sensory neurons; motor neurons.”
92
What is a reflex
“is a behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus.”
93
What is the moro reflex and when does it disappear?
“Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying.”
Disappears by 4 MONTHS
94
What are the 2 classes of motor skills?
“Gross motor skills incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling, and walking. Fine motor skills involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement. Fine motor abilities include tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving.”
95
When do stranger and separation anxiety develop?
7 and 12 months respectively
96
At two years what type of play does a child exhibit?
Parallel play
“in which children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior”
97
“a child has an awareness of his or her gender identity, engages in gender-specific play, and knows his or her full name.”
Age 3
98
“From ages six through twelve, friend circles tend to be
of the same sex without expression of romantic feelings. ”
99
For milestones the general theme is that gross motor skills progress ______.
What is correlation between the development of motor skills and proximity to the center of the body?
Social skills move from what orientation to what?.”
in a head-to-toe order starting with the ability to lift the head, stabilize the trunk, and finally walking;
skills are developed at the core prior to extremities;
being parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented
100
What is neuropsychology?
“the study of the connection between the nervous system and behavior. It most often focuses on the functions of various brain regions.”
101
What is a reflex arc?
“use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain.”
102
The hindbrain contains what 3 parts
Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation
103
The midbrain contains what 2 parts?
Inferior and superior colliculi
104
The forebrain contains what parts?
Thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex
105
What are 3 methods we can use to study the brain?
1. Study animals/humans with lesions
2. Electrical Stimulation
3. Activity recording (EEG), regional cerebral blood flow
106
The hypophyseal petal system connects what to what
Connects hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
107
What does the basal ganglia do?
Smoothen movements and helps maintain postural stablity
108
The septal nuclei are involved with
“feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction.”
109
The amygdala controls
fear and aggresion
110
The hippocampus does what
“ consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the fornix.”
111
The frontal lobe does what
“controls executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function, and speech production.”
112
The parietal lobe controls
“controls sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; spatial processing; orientation; and manipulation
113
Role of the temporal lobe?
“controls sound processing, speech perception, memory, and emotion.”
114
“The brain is divided into two cerebral hemispheres, left and right. In most individuals, the ____hemisphere is the dominant hemisphere for language.”
LEFT
115
“Neurotransmitters are released by neurons to carry a signal to
another neuron or effector (a muscle fiber or a gland).”
116
Dopamine does what
“maintains smooth movements and steady posture.”
117
“Epinephrine tends to act as a ______, and norepinephrine tends to act more classically as a ______.”
Hormone; neurotransmitter
118
_______ look at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population.
________ compare concordance rates between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.
________ compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents.”
Family Studies; Twin Studies; Adoption studies
119
“The ______ becomes the central nervous system (CNS).”
Neural Tube
120
In neurolation, The _______ spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues.”
Neural Crest Cells
121
“In the _______, the infant turns his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek.”
Rooting Reflex
122
“In the _______, the infant extends the arms, then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling.”
Moro Reflex
123
“In the _____ _____, the big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot.”
Babinski Reflex
