Ch. 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards
defn: cognition
how our brains process and react to information from the world
defn: dual coding-theory
both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information
defn: the four key components of the information processing model
- thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
- stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (not responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making
- decisions make in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (situational modification)
- problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
defn: cognitive development
the development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the life span
what are the Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?
- sensorimotor
- preoperational
- concrete operational
- formal operational
defn: schema
a concept, behavior, or sequence of events
defn and components: adaptation
how new information is processed
assimilation and accommodation
defn: assimilation (cognitive development)
the process of classifying new information into existing schemata
defn: accommodation
the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new info
defn, char, age: sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development
age: birth - 2 years old
- manipulate environment to meet physical needs
- coordinate sensory input with motor actions
- circular reactions
- objective permanence
- representational thought
primary circular reactions: repetitions of body movements that orig. occurred by change
secondary circular reactions: manipulation is focused on something outside the body
object permanence: objects continue to exist even when out of view
marks the beginning of representational thought: create mental representations of external objects and events
defn, char, age: preoperational stage
Piaget’s 2nd stage of cognitive development
2-7 years old
- symbolic thinking
- egocentrism
- inability to grasp conservation
- centration
symbolic thinking: the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
egocentrism: the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
conservation: a physical amount remains the same even if there is a change in shape or look
centration: the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon while ignoring other important elements
defn, char, age: concrete operational stage
Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development
7-11 years old
- conservation
- others’ perspectives (loss of egocentrism)
- logical thought with concrete objects and directly available information
defn, char, age: formal operational stage
Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development
11 years old +
- abstract thinking
- problem solving
- hypothetical reasoning
hypothetical reasoning: the ability to mentally manipulate variables in a number of ways
defn: fluid intelligence
solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods
defn: crystallized intelligence
solving problems using acquired knowledge (often procedural)
What is the relationship of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence with age?
Fluid intelligence: peaks in early adulthood, declines with age
Crystallized intelligence: peaks in middle adulthood, stable with age
defn: activities of daily living
eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, ambulation
defn, char, and cause: dementia
disorders and conditions characterized by a general loss of cognitive function
begins with impaired memory, progresses to impaired judgement and confusion; personality changes
most common cause: Alzheimer’s
also common: vascular dementia (high blood pressure and microscopic brain clots)
What other conditions can impact cognition?
- parenting style
- Down syndrome
- Fragile X syndrome
- fetal alcohol syndrome
- brain infections
- birth complications
- shaken baby syndrome
defn: delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes (nonphysiological)
defn: mental set
the tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
defn: functional fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
what are the four types of problem solving?
- trial-and-error
- algorithms
- deductive reasoning
- inductive reasoning
defn: algorithm
a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
defn and aka: deductive reasoning
aka: top-down reasoning
starts from a set of general rules, draws conclusions from the info given
defn and aka: inductive reasoning
aka: bottom-up reasoning
create a theory via generalizations
starts with specific instances and draws a conclsuion from them
what are the four types of tools we use for decision making?
- heuristics
- biases
- intuition
- emotion
defn and aka: heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions
aka: rules of thumb
defn: availability heuristic
we based the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind
defn: representativeness heuristic
categorizing items based on whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
defn: base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info
defn: disconfirmation principle
the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
defn: confirmation bias
the tendency to focus on info that fits your beliefs and reject info that goes against them
defn: overconfidence
the tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
defn: hindsight bias
the tendency to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened
defn: belief perserverance
the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
what are the four concepts that impede a person’s analysis of available evidence?
- confirmation bias
- overconfidence
- hindsight bias
- belief perserverance
what is the recognition-primed decision model?
it’s basically intuition!
the brain sorts through a wide variety of info to match a pattern
experience helps this!
what are Gardner’s 8 defined types of intelligence?
- Linguistic
- Logical-mathematical
- Musical
- Visual-spatial
- Bodily-kinesthetic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Naturalist
what are the types of intelligence in Sternberg’s triarchic theory? describe them.
- analytical intelligence (evaluate and reason)
- creative intelligence (solve problems using novel methods)
- practical intelligence (dealing with everyday problems at home or work)
what are the four components of emotional intelligence?
- express and perceive emotions of ourself and others
- comprehend and analyze our emotions
- regulate our emotions
- awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions
defn: g factor
general intelligence factor
performance on different cognitive tasks is often positively correlated (indicating an underlying factor playing a role)
defn: consciousness
one’s level of awareness of the world and one’s own existence within that world
what are the 4 states of consciousness?
- alertness
- sleep
- dreaming
- altered states
defn: physiological arousal
increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, cortisol etc.
we exp. a certain level while alert
defn, func, and injury: reticular formation
neural structure in the brainstem
communicates with fibers from the prefrontal cortex to keep the cortex awake and alert
injury: coma
what are the 4 EEG patterns correlated with different wake and sleep stages?
- beta
- alpha
- theta
- delta
- REM
char and sleep stage: beta waves
high frequency
alert, attending to mental task that requires concentration
occur when neurons are randomly firing
char and sleep stage: alpha waves
awake, but relaxing with our eyes closed
slower and more synchronized than beta waves
char and sleep stage: theta waves
irregular waveforms, slow frequency, high voltage
sleep stage 1
EEG results during: sleep stage 2
theta waves + sleep spindles (bursts of high-freq waves) + K complexes (singular high-amplitude waves)
char and sleep stage: delta waves
sleep stage 3 (slow-wave sleep (SWS))
low-frequency, high voltage
char: sleep stage 3
- very difficult to wake someone
- cognitive recovery
- memory consolidation
- increased growth hormone rlease
what stages of sleep fall under NREM? what is NREM?
non-rapid eye movement sleep
stage 1 - 3
defn, char, timeline, aka: REM
rapid eye movement sleep
between cycles of NREM stages
arousal levels reach that of wake, but muscles are paralyzed
aka: paradoxical sleep (heart rate, breathing, EEG mimic wake, but you are still asleep)
- dreaming
- memory consolidation
what 2 hormones have a role in sleep-wake cycles? how? + mnemonic
- MELatonin (MELLows you out) –> decreasing light can cause its release
- cortiSOL (helps you get up with the SOL/sun) –> slowly releases during early morning bc of increasing light and subsequent hormone pathway
during what sleep stage does dreaming mostly occur?
REM
what are the three theories of dreaming? describe them.
- activation-synthesis theory (dreams caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry)
- problem solving theory (dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping)
- cognitive process dream theory (dreams are the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness)
defn: dyssomnias + 3 examples
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
defn + 2 examples: parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
night terrors, sleepwalking
what stage do most sleep-wake disorders occur during?
NREM sleep
defn: cataplexy
a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM during waking hours, usually emotionally triggered
a symptom of nacrolepsy
what are the three symptoms of narcolepsy?
- cataplexy
- sleep paralysis
- hypnagogic (while going to sleep) and hypnopompic (while awakening) hallucinations
what is the difference between obstructive and central sleep apnea?
obstructive: physical blockage in pharynx or trachea prevents airflow
central: brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm
during what sleep stage do night terrors and sleepwalking happen?
SWS (stage 3)
defn: REM rebound
an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal which occurs when people are permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation
provide 5 examples of what hypnosis can help with
- pain control
- psychological therapy
- memory enhancement
- weight loss
- smoking cessation
what sleep stage and types of waves does meditation resemble on EEG?
sleep stage 1
theta and slow alpha waves
what are the 4 diffrent groups of psychoactive/consciousness-altering drugs?
- depressants
- stimulants
- opiates
- hallucinogens
func + ex: depressants
reduce nervous system activity = relaxation, reduced anxiety
alcohol
downers/sedatives (calm and induce sleep)
effects of alcohol on the brain + outward behavior
- increases activity of the GABA receptor (causes hyperpolarization of the membrane –> causes generalized brain inhibition at the physiological level –> diminished arousal at moderate doses)
- lack of self-control (disinhibition) –> bc the centers of the brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed
- increases dopamine levels –> mild euphoria
- affects logical reasoning, motor skills, fatigue
- alcohol myopia (the inability to recognize consequences of actions)
long term consequences of alcoholism
- cirrhosis and liver failure
- pancreatic damage
- gastric or duodenal ulcers
- gastrointestinal cancer
- brain disorders
defn: Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1)
characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills
a long term consequence of alchoholism
defn + func + ex: sedatives
depress CNS activity = calm, relaxed, drowsy
barbiturates (anxiety-reducing and sleep, archaic)
benzodiazepines (modern, less prone to overdose)
increase GABA activity –> relaxation
highly addictive
defn + func + ex: stimulants
cause an increase in nervous system arousal
each drug increases the frequency of action potentials, but by different mechanisms
amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy/MDMA
func + effects: amphetamines
caused increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake –> increases arousal, reduces appetite, decreases need for sleep
increased HR, BP
euphoria, hypervigilance (on edge), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia
prolonged use: stroke, brain damage
withdrawal: depression, fatigue, irritability
func + effects: cocaine
decreases reuptake of doapmine, norephinephrine, and serotonin
similar effects to amphetamines
also has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties
highly addictive
crack is the smokeable form
func + effects + aka: opiates and opioids
types of narcotics
aka painkillers
OPIATES = naturally occurring forms (morphine, codeine)
OPIOIDS = semisynthetic derivatives (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin)
bind to opioid receptors in the PNS and CNS
act as endorphin agonists, cause decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria
overdose: respiratory suppression
func + effects + class: heroin
an opioid
originally created as a substitute for morphine
is rapidly metabolized to morphine
func + effects + ex: hallucinogens
cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences
increased HR, BP, pupil dilation, sweating, increased body temp
LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin mushrooms
complex interaction between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin
effects + func: marijuana
active chemical = tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
acts on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors which interact to create a high
inhibits GABA activity, indireclty increases dopamine activity (causing pleasure)
eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, increased appetite, low BP
pscyhological effects fall into stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen categories
defn: mesolimbic reward pathway
highly related to drug addiction
one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain
includes the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them (the medial forebrain bundle MFB)
normally involved in motivation and emotional response
its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use
activated by all substances that produce pscyhological dependence, also by gambling and falling in love
defn: attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment ( sensorium)
defn: selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
if a stimulus is attended to: it is passed through a filter and analyzed further
if the stimulus is not attended to: it is lost
NOT all-or-nothing
defn: cocktail party phenomenon
selective attention is a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background
only if the stimuli are particularly important, do we shift our attention to them
you are at a party talking to a friend, and you hear your name across the room
defn: dichotic listening tests
designed to test selective attention
listen to headphones with distinct auditory stimuli going to each ear
participants are then asked to pay attention to either or both stimuli, then asked to repeat out loud what they heard in the attended ear (shadowing)
participants must filter out information from the unattended ear
defn: divided attention
the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
defn: controlled (effortful) vs. automatic processing
most new or complex tasks require undivided attention (utilize CONTROLLED processing)
familiar or routine actions can be performed with AUTOMATIC processing (permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention) –> does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change
what are the five basic components of language?
- phonology
- morphology
- semantics
- syntax
- pragmatics
defn: phonology
the actual sound of language
defn: phoneme
speech sounds (about 40 in English)
defn: morphology
the structure of words
defn: morpheme
building blocks that compose words
each connotes a particular mening
defn: semantics
the association of meaning with a word
defn: syntax
how words are put together to form sentences
defn: pragmatics
the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge
defn: prosody
the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
what is the timeline of language acquisition?
9 - 12 mos: babbling
12 - 18 mos: one word per month
18 to 20 mos: “explosion of language” and combining words
2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words +)
5 years: language rules largely mastered
defn: naming explosion
18 - 20 months
child quickly learns dozens of words and uses each word with varying inflection and gestures to convey a desired meaning
defn: overextension
inappropriate application of a term to an object that bears cursory similarities to the term
(can happen during the naming explosion)
defn: errors of growth
a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply
defn and who: nativist (biological) theory
advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language
Chomsky
defn: language acquisition device (LAD)
part of the nativist theory of language
the innate ability for language // a theoretical brain pathway that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
defn: critical period for language acquisition
part of the nativist theory of language
between 2 yrs and puberty
if no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is ineffective
defn: sensitive period
a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
defn and who: learning (behaviorist) theory
explains language acquisition by operant conditioning and reinforcement
B.F. Skinner
defn: social interactionist theory
language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate and behave in a social manner
what are the three theories of language development?
- nativist (biological) theory
- learning (behaviorist) theory
- social interactionist theory
defn and aka: Whorfian hypothesis
aka: linguistic relativity hypothesis
our perception of reality (the way we think about the world) is determined by the content of language
LANGUAGE EFFECTS THE WAY WE THINK NOT VICE VERSA
think about how languages with more words for colors can process more subtleties in those colors
what are the two brain areas responsible for speech production and language comprehension?
Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area (both in dominant hemisphere)
loc and func: Broca’s area
loc: inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe
func: controls motor function of speech via motor cortex connections
loc and func: Wernicke’s area
loc: superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe
func: language comprehension
defn, loc, and func: arcuate fasciculus
connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s
a bundle of axons allowing for correct association btwn language comprehension and speech production
defn: aphasia
deficity of language production or comprehension
defn and aka: Broca’s aphasia
aka: expressive aphasia
- damage occurs to Broca’s area
- speech comprehension is intact
- reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language
defn and aka: Wernicke’s aphasia
aka: receptive aphasia
- damage occurs to Wernicke’s area
- motor production and fluency of speech retained
- speech comprehension lost
defn and cause: conduction aphasia
arcuate fasciculus is affected
- speech production and comprehension intact
- cannot repeat something that has been said bc connection lost
