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Psych/Soc Correct Deck > Ch. 3: Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Ch. 3: Learning and Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Defn: learning

A

the way in which we acquire new behaviors

a change in behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus

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2
Q

defn: stimulus

A

anything to which an organism can respond

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3
Q

defn: habituation

A

repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decreased response

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4
Q

defn: subthreshold stimulus

A

a stimulus too weak to elicit a response

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5
Q

defn: dishabituation

A

the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred

often noted when a second stimulus is presented late in habituation of a first (causes an increase response to stimulus 1)

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6
Q

defn: associative learning

A

the creation of a pairing (association) between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response

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7
Q

what are the two types of associative learning?

A

classical and operant conditioning

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8
Q

defn: classical conditioning

A

a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli

think about Pavlov’s dogs!

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9
Q

defn: unconditioned stimulus

A

a part of classical conditioning

any stimulus that brings about such a reflexive response

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10
Q

defn: unconditioned response

A

a part of classical conditioning

the innate or reflexive response caused by the unconditioned stimulus

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11
Q

defn: neutral stimuli

A

a part of classical conditioning

stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response

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12
Q

defn: conditioned stimulus

A

a part of classical conditioning

a normally neutral stimulus that now causes a reflexive response through association

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13
Q

defn: conditioned response

A

a part of classical conditioning

the reflexive response to the conditioned stimulus developed through association

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14
Q

defn: acquistion

A

part of classical conditioning

the process of using a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus

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15
Q

defn: extinction

A

part of classical conditioning

the loss of a conditioned response; can occur if the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

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16
Q

defn: spontaneous recovery

A

part of classical conditioning

after some time, presenting subjects again with an extinct conditioned stimulus will sometimes produce a weak conditioned response

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17
Q

defn: generalization

A

part of classical conditioning

a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

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18
Q

defn: stimuli discrimination (also just discrimination)

A

part of classical conditioning

learning to distinguish between similar stimuli (the opposite of generalization)

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19
Q

Split up conditioned responses, reinforcement, punishment, and unconditioned responses between operant and classical conditioning

A

Operant: reinforcement, punishment

Classical: conditioned and unconditioned responses

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20
Q

Defn: behaviorism

A

the theory that all behaviors are conditioned (B.F. Skinner)

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21
Q

defn: reward-seeking behaviors

A
  • innately search for resources in their environment
  • foraging and approach behaviors
    -modified over time as the animal interacts with various stimuli and adjust its behaviors accordingly
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22
Q

defn: reinforcement

A

part of operant conditioning

the process of increasing the likelihood that an animal will perform a behavior

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23
Q

defn: positive reinforcer

A

part of operant conditioning

increase the frequency of a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior

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24
Q

defn: negative reinforcer

A

part of operant conditioning

increase the frequency of a behavior by removing something unpleasant

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25
Q

what are the two divisions of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning? what distinguishes them?

A

escape learning and avoidance learning

different in whether the unpleasant stimulus occurs or not

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26
Q

process: escape learning

A
  1. experience unpleasant stimulus
  2. respond by displaying the desired behavior to trigger the stimulus’ removal
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27
Q

defn and why: avoidance learning

A
  1. display desired behavior in anticipation of unpleasant stimulus (avoid unpleasant stimulus)

often develops from multiple experiences of escape learning

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28
Q

Do positive and negative refer to the goodness or badness of a behavior in operant conditioning?

A

NO they just refer to the addition or removal of a stimulus

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29
Q

defn: primary reinforcer

A

combining operant and classical

illicits natural response

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30
Q

defn and aka: conditioned reinforcer

A

combining operant and classical

aka: secondary reinforcer

use classical conditioning to pair this stimulus with the first to elicit the same response

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31
Q

defn: discriminative stimulus

A

combining operant and classical

may associate other variable with result of first stimulus

indicates that reward is potentially available in operant conditioning paradigm

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32
Q

defn: punishment

A

part of operant conditioning

use conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior

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33
Q

defn and aka: positive punishment

A

part of operant conditioning

add an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior

aka: aversive conditioning

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34
Q

defn: negative punishment

A

part of operant conditioning

removing a stimulus in order to cause a reduction of a behavior

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35
Q

defn and impact: reinforcement schedules

A

part of operant conditioning

the schedule being used to deliver the stimuli

affects the rate at which desired behaviors are acquired

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36
Q

what are the four types of reinforcement schedules (operant conditioning)? describe them.

A
  1. fixed-ratio (FR): reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
  2. variable-ratio (VR): reinforce behavior after a varying number of performances of that behavior (but such that avg. # of performances to receive reward is pretty constant)
  3. fixed-interval (FI): reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
  4. variable-interval (VI): reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
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37
Q

defn: continuous reinforcement

A

part of operant conditioning

a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

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38
Q

what is the fastest reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning for learning a new behavior? is this schedule the MOST or LEAST resistant to extinction?

A

variable-ratio

most resistant to extinction

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39
Q

Mnemonic: variable-ratio characteristics

A

VR = Very Rapid and Very Resistant (to extinction)

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40
Q

defn: shaping

A

part of operant conditioning

the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors that become closer to a desired response

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41
Q

defn: latent learning

A

learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

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42
Q

defn: problem solving

A

outside of behaviorist approach

a type of learning that involves observing a situation and taking decisive action to solve the challenge

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43
Q

defn: preparedness

A

a predisposition that animals are most able to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors

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44
Q

defn: instinctive/instinctual drift

A

animals revert to an instinctive behavior after learning a new, similar behavior

45
Q

defn: observational learning

A

the process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others (not the same as imitation)

46
Q

defn and loc: mirror neurons

A

part of observational learning

neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes

fire both when an individual performs an action AND when that individual observes someone else performing that action

largely involved in motor processes, also empathy, vicarious emotions

47
Q

defn: modeling

A

part of observational learning

an important factor in determining people’s behavior throughout their lifetime

people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them

48
Q

what are the three major processes of the formation of memories?

A

encoding, storage, and retrieval

49
Q

defn: encoding

A

the process of putting new info into memory

50
Q

defn: automatic processing

A

info gained without any effort (unintentional, automatic)

51
Q

defn: controlled/effortful processing

A

active memorization; active work to gain info

52
Q

what are the four ways we can encode the meaning of information when controlled processing is required? describe them.

A
  1. visual encoding (visualize info)
  2. acoustic encoding (store the way it sounds)
  3. elaborative encoding (link it to knowledge already in memory)
  4. semantic encoding (put it into a meaningful context)
53
Q

what is the strongest and weakest type of information encoding?

A

strongest: semantic encoding
weakest: visual encoding

54
Q

defn: self-reference effect

A

we recall information better when we can put it into the context of our own lives

55
Q

defn: maintenance rehearsal

A

the repetition of a piece of info to keep it in working memory or store it in short and long term memory

56
Q

defn: method of loci

A

a type of mnemonic

associate each item in a list with a location along a route through a building already memorized

57
Q

defn: peg-word system

A

a type of mnemonic

associate numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

58
Q

defn: chunking (clustering)

A

take individual elements of a large list, group them together into groups of elements with related meaning

59
Q

defn and char: sensory memory

A

most fleeting kind of memory

preserves info in its original sensory form with high accuracy, lasts for a very short time (< 1 sec)

60
Q

what are the two types of sensory memory? describe them.

A

iconic memory: fast-decaying memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory: fast-decaying memory of auditory stimuli

61
Q

defn, char, and loc: short-term memory

A

fades quickly (30 sec)

memory capacity: the number of items we can hold in our short-term memory at any given time

loc: hippocampus

62
Q

what number is our memory capacity?

A

7 +/- 2

63
Q

How can the capacity of short-term memory be increased? how can the duration be extended?

A

capacity: clustering
duration: maintenance rehearsal

64
Q

defn: working memory

A

allows us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness at the same time and to manipulate that info

involves hippocampus, frontal and parietal lobes by combining short-term memory, attention, and executive function

65
Q

defn, char: long-term memory

A

a limitless knowledge warehouse that we can recall on demand

66
Q

defn and loc: elaborative rehearsal

A

part of long-term memory

a way that info is consolidated into long-term memory

the association of information to knowledge already in long-term memory

closely tied to the self-reference effect

loc: hippocampus, cerebral cortex

67
Q

what are the two types of long-term memory? describe them.

A

implicit (nondeclarative) memory: our skills, habits, conditioned responses that do not need to be consciously recalled

explicit (declarative) memory: memories that require conscious recall

68
Q

what are the two types of implicit memory? describe them.

A

procedural memory: our unconscious memory of the skills required to complete procedural tasks

priming: the presentation of one stimulus affecting perception of a second

69
Q

defn: positive priming and negative priming

A

part of priming, which is part of implicit memory

positive priming: exposure to the first stimulus improves processing of the second stimulus

negative priming: first stimulus interferes with processing of the second stimulus (slow response times, more errors)

70
Q

what are the two types of explicit memory? describe them.

A

episodic memory: our recollection of life experience3s

semantic memory: ideas, concepts, facts that we know, but are not tied to specific life experiences

71
Q

defn: autobiographical memory

A

our explicit memories about our lives and ourselves (both episodic and semantic)

72
Q

defn: retrieval

A

part of memory

the process of showing that something that has been learned has been retained

73
Q

what are the 3 types of retrieval?

A
  1. recall
  2. recognition
  3. relearning
74
Q

defn: recall

A

a type of memory retrieval

the retrieval and statement of previously learned info

75
Q

defn: recognition

A

a type of memory retrieval

the process of identifying a piece of information that was previously learned

76
Q

defn: the spacing effect

A

the longer the amount of time between relearning sessions, the greater the retention of the information later on

77
Q

defn: semantic netowrk

A

the way your brain organizes ideas

concepts are linked together based on simiklar meaning

78
Q

defn and related conc: spreading activation

A

when the linked concepts around an activated node in our semantic network are also unconsciously activated

basis of positive priming

79
Q

defn: recall cue

A

recall aid by first being presented with a word or phrase

80
Q

defn: context effect

A

memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

81
Q

defn: source monitoring

A

a part of retrieval

determining the origin of memories and whether they are fact or fiction

82
Q

defn: state-dependent memory/effect

A

a retrieval cue

performing better when in the same mental state as when the information was learned

extends to emotion (mood may persist)

83
Q

defn: serial-position effect

A

high recall for first few and last few items on a list

84
Q

defn: primacy effect

A

tendency to remember early items on a list

85
Q

defn: recency effect

A

tendency to remember late items on a list

86
Q

is recall higher for the first or later items on a list?

A

first (later are in short-term still!)

87
Q

defn: source amnesia

A

the inability to remember where, when, or how one has obtained knowledge

88
Q

defn, cause, symptoms: Alzheimer’s disease

A
  1. degenerative brain disorder
  2. loss of acetylcholine in neurons linked to the hippocampus
  3. progressive dementia (loss of cognitive function), memory loss, brain atrophy; sundowning: increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening

memory loss tends to be retrograde: loss of recent memories before distant

microscopic findings: neurofibrillary tangles, beta-amyloid plaques

89
Q

defn, cause, symptoms: Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain

retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia

confabulation (creating vivid, fabricated memories)

90
Q

defn: retograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia

A

retrograde: loss of previously formed memories

anterograde: the inability to form new memories

91
Q

defn, cause: agnosia

A

the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, sounds (usually only one)

cause: physical damage by a stroke or neurological disorder

92
Q

defn: decay (memory)

A

memories are lost naturally over time as the neurochemical trace of a shotrt-term memory fades

93
Q

defn and aka: retention function

A

aka: the curve of forgetting

shortly after learning: recall falls sharply, then levels off

94
Q

defn: interference

A

a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, similar info

95
Q

defn: proactive interference

A

old info interferes with new learning

96
Q

defn: retroactive interference

A

new info causes forgetting of old info

97
Q

defn: prospective memory

A

remembering to perform a task at some point in the future

remains mostly intact when event-based (remembering to buy milk when you walk past the grocery store)

time-based: declines with age

98
Q

defn: reproductive memory

A

accurate recall of past events

99
Q

defn: reconstructive memory

A

a theory of memory recall in which cognitive process such as imagination, perception, and semantic memory affect remembering

100
Q

defn: false memory

A

a memory that incorrectly recalls actual events or recalls events that never occurred

101
Q

defn: recovered memories

A

repressed memories that can be brought back into our conscious mind

102
Q

defn: misinformation effect

A

a person’s recall of an event becomes less accurate due to the injection of outside info into the memory

103
Q

defn: intrusion errors

A

false memories that have included a false detail into a particular memory

NOT from an outside source (injected due to both memories being related or sharing a theme)

104
Q

defn: source-monitoring error

A

confusion between semantic and episodic memory (remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which the details were gained)

105
Q

defn: neuroplasticity

A

as our brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli via this

decreases with age

106
Q

defn: synaptic pruning

A

as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken and strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains’ ability to process information

107
Q

defn: long-term potentiation

A

the strengthening of neural connections through repeated use

the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory

requires NDMA receptor

defn: potentiate = to increase the potency or strength of something

108
Q

quick paradigm of interplay of brain regions involved in memory

A
  1. memory begins as a sensory memory in the projection area of a given sensory modality
  2. this is brief unless maintained in consciousness, and moved as a short-term memory to the hippocampus in the temporal lobe
  3. this memory can be manipulated. through working memory while in the hippocampus and stored for later recall
  4. over very long periods of time, memories are gradually moved from the hippocampus back to the cerebral cortex

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