Ch. 3: Learning and Memory Flashcards
Defn: learning
the way in which we acquire new behaviors
a change in behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus
defn: stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond
defn: habituation
repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decreased response
defn: subthreshold stimulus
a stimulus too weak to elicit a response
defn: dishabituation
the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
often noted when a second stimulus is presented late in habituation of a first (causes an increase response to stimulus 1)
defn: associative learning
the creation of a pairing (association) between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
what are the two types of associative learning?
classical and operant conditioning
defn: classical conditioning
a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli
think about Pavlov’s dogs!
defn: unconditioned stimulus
a part of classical conditioning
any stimulus that brings about such a reflexive response
defn: unconditioned response
a part of classical conditioning
the innate or reflexive response caused by the unconditioned stimulus
defn: neutral stimuli
a part of classical conditioning
stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response
defn: conditioned stimulus
a part of classical conditioning
a normally neutral stimulus that now causes a reflexive response through association
defn: conditioned response
a part of classical conditioning
the reflexive response to the conditioned stimulus developed through association
defn: acquistion
part of classical conditioning
the process of using a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
defn: extinction
part of classical conditioning
the loss of a conditioned response; can occur if the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
defn: spontaneous recovery
part of classical conditioning
after some time, presenting subjects again with an extinct conditioned stimulus will sometimes produce a weak conditioned response
defn: generalization
part of classical conditioning
a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
defn: stimuli discrimination (also just discrimination)
part of classical conditioning
learning to distinguish between similar stimuli (the opposite of generalization)
Split up conditioned responses, reinforcement, punishment, and unconditioned responses between operant and classical conditioning
Operant: reinforcement, punishment
Classical: conditioned and unconditioned responses
Defn: behaviorism
the theory that all behaviors are conditioned (B.F. Skinner)
defn: reward-seeking behaviors
- innately search for resources in their environment
- foraging and approach behaviors
-modified over time as the animal interacts with various stimuli and adjust its behaviors accordingly
defn: reinforcement
part of operant conditioning
the process of increasing the likelihood that an animal will perform a behavior
defn: positive reinforcer
part of operant conditioning
increase the frequency of a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior
defn: negative reinforcer
part of operant conditioning
increase the frequency of a behavior by removing something unpleasant
what are the two divisions of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning? what distinguishes them?
escape learning and avoidance learning
different in whether the unpleasant stimulus occurs or not
process: escape learning
- experience unpleasant stimulus
- respond by displaying the desired behavior to trigger the stimulus’ removal
defn and why: avoidance learning
- display desired behavior in anticipation of unpleasant stimulus (avoid unpleasant stimulus)
often develops from multiple experiences of escape learning
Do positive and negative refer to the goodness or badness of a behavior in operant conditioning?
NO they just refer to the addition or removal of a stimulus
defn: primary reinforcer
combining operant and classical
illicits natural response
defn and aka: conditioned reinforcer
combining operant and classical
aka: secondary reinforcer
use classical conditioning to pair this stimulus with the first to elicit the same response
defn: discriminative stimulus
combining operant and classical
may associate other variable with result of first stimulus
indicates that reward is potentially available in operant conditioning paradigm
defn: punishment
part of operant conditioning
use conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
defn and aka: positive punishment
part of operant conditioning
add an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior
aka: aversive conditioning
defn: negative punishment
part of operant conditioning
removing a stimulus in order to cause a reduction of a behavior
defn and impact: reinforcement schedules
part of operant conditioning
the schedule being used to deliver the stimuli
affects the rate at which desired behaviors are acquired
what are the four types of reinforcement schedules (operant conditioning)? describe them.
- fixed-ratio (FR): reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
- variable-ratio (VR): reinforce behavior after a varying number of performances of that behavior (but such that avg. # of performances to receive reward is pretty constant)
- fixed-interval (FI): reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
- variable-interval (VI): reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
defn: continuous reinforcement
part of operant conditioning
a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
what is the fastest reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning for learning a new behavior? is this schedule the MOST or LEAST resistant to extinction?
variable-ratio
most resistant to extinction
Mnemonic: variable-ratio characteristics
VR = Very Rapid and Very Resistant (to extinction)
defn: shaping
part of operant conditioning
the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors that become closer to a desired response
defn: latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
defn: problem solving
outside of behaviorist approach
a type of learning that involves observing a situation and taking decisive action to solve the challenge
defn: preparedness
a predisposition that animals are most able to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors
defn: instinctive/instinctual drift
animals revert to an instinctive behavior after learning a new, similar behavior
defn: observational learning
the process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others (not the same as imitation)
defn and loc: mirror neurons
part of observational learning
neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes
fire both when an individual performs an action AND when that individual observes someone else performing that action
largely involved in motor processes, also empathy, vicarious emotions
defn: modeling
part of observational learning
an important factor in determining people’s behavior throughout their lifetime
people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them
what are the three major processes of the formation of memories?
encoding, storage, and retrieval
defn: encoding
the process of putting new info into memory
defn: automatic processing
info gained without any effort (unintentional, automatic)
defn: controlled/effortful processing
active memorization; active work to gain info
what are the four ways we can encode the meaning of information when controlled processing is required? describe them.
- visual encoding (visualize info)
- acoustic encoding (store the way it sounds)
- elaborative encoding (link it to knowledge already in memory)
- semantic encoding (put it into a meaningful context)
what is the strongest and weakest type of information encoding?
strongest: semantic encoding
weakest: visual encoding
defn: self-reference effect
we recall information better when we can put it into the context of our own lives
defn: maintenance rehearsal
the repetition of a piece of info to keep it in working memory or store it in short and long term memory
defn: method of loci
a type of mnemonic
associate each item in a list with a location along a route through a building already memorized
defn: peg-word system
a type of mnemonic
associate numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
defn: chunking (clustering)
take individual elements of a large list, group them together into groups of elements with related meaning
defn and char: sensory memory
most fleeting kind of memory
preserves info in its original sensory form with high accuracy, lasts for a very short time (< 1 sec)
what are the two types of sensory memory? describe them.
iconic memory: fast-decaying memory of visual stimuli
echoic memory: fast-decaying memory of auditory stimuli
defn, char, and loc: short-term memory
fades quickly (30 sec)
memory capacity: the number of items we can hold in our short-term memory at any given time
loc: hippocampus
what number is our memory capacity?
7 +/- 2
How can the capacity of short-term memory be increased? how can the duration be extended?
capacity: clustering
duration: maintenance rehearsal
defn: working memory
allows us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness at the same time and to manipulate that info
involves hippocampus, frontal and parietal lobes by combining short-term memory, attention, and executive function
defn, char: long-term memory
a limitless knowledge warehouse that we can recall on demand
defn and loc: elaborative rehearsal
part of long-term memory
a way that info is consolidated into long-term memory
the association of information to knowledge already in long-term memory
closely tied to the self-reference effect
loc: hippocampus, cerebral cortex
what are the two types of long-term memory? describe them.
implicit (nondeclarative) memory: our skills, habits, conditioned responses that do not need to be consciously recalled
explicit (declarative) memory: memories that require conscious recall
what are the two types of implicit memory? describe them.
procedural memory: our unconscious memory of the skills required to complete procedural tasks
priming: the presentation of one stimulus affecting perception of a second
defn: positive priming and negative priming
part of priming, which is part of implicit memory
positive priming: exposure to the first stimulus improves processing of the second stimulus
negative priming: first stimulus interferes with processing of the second stimulus (slow response times, more errors)
what are the two types of explicit memory? describe them.
episodic memory: our recollection of life experience3s
semantic memory: ideas, concepts, facts that we know, but are not tied to specific life experiences
defn: autobiographical memory
our explicit memories about our lives and ourselves (both episodic and semantic)
defn: retrieval
part of memory
the process of showing that something that has been learned has been retained
what are the 3 types of retrieval?
- recall
- recognition
- relearning
defn: recall
a type of memory retrieval
the retrieval and statement of previously learned info
defn: recognition
a type of memory retrieval
the process of identifying a piece of information that was previously learned
defn: the spacing effect
the longer the amount of time between relearning sessions, the greater the retention of the information later on
defn: semantic netowrk
the way your brain organizes ideas
concepts are linked together based on simiklar meaning
defn and related conc: spreading activation
when the linked concepts around an activated node in our semantic network are also unconsciously activated
basis of positive priming
defn: recall cue
recall aid by first being presented with a word or phrase
defn: context effect
memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
defn: source monitoring
a part of retrieval
determining the origin of memories and whether they are fact or fiction
defn: state-dependent memory/effect
a retrieval cue
performing better when in the same mental state as when the information was learned
extends to emotion (mood may persist)
defn: serial-position effect
high recall for first few and last few items on a list
defn: primacy effect
tendency to remember early items on a list
defn: recency effect
tendency to remember late items on a list
is recall higher for the first or later items on a list?
first (later are in short-term still!)
defn: source amnesia
the inability to remember where, when, or how one has obtained knowledge
defn, cause, symptoms: Alzheimer’s disease
- degenerative brain disorder
- loss of acetylcholine in neurons linked to the hippocampus
- progressive dementia (loss of cognitive function), memory loss, brain atrophy; sundowning: increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening
memory loss tends to be retrograde: loss of recent memories before distant
microscopic findings: neurofibrillary tangles, beta-amyloid plaques
defn, cause, symptoms: Korsakoff’s syndrome
memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia
confabulation (creating vivid, fabricated memories)
defn: retograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia
retrograde: loss of previously formed memories
anterograde: the inability to form new memories
defn, cause: agnosia
the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, sounds (usually only one)
cause: physical damage by a stroke or neurological disorder
defn: decay (memory)
memories are lost naturally over time as the neurochemical trace of a shotrt-term memory fades
defn and aka: retention function
aka: the curve of forgetting
shortly after learning: recall falls sharply, then levels off
defn: interference
a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, similar info
defn: proactive interference
old info interferes with new learning
defn: retroactive interference
new info causes forgetting of old info
defn: prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
remains mostly intact when event-based (remembering to buy milk when you walk past the grocery store)
time-based: declines with age
defn: reproductive memory
accurate recall of past events
defn: reconstructive memory
a theory of memory recall in which cognitive process such as imagination, perception, and semantic memory affect remembering
defn: false memory
a memory that incorrectly recalls actual events or recalls events that never occurred
defn: recovered memories
repressed memories that can be brought back into our conscious mind
defn: misinformation effect
a person’s recall of an event becomes less accurate due to the injection of outside info into the memory
defn: intrusion errors
false memories that have included a false detail into a particular memory
NOT from an outside source (injected due to both memories being related or sharing a theme)
defn: source-monitoring error
confusion between semantic and episodic memory (remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which the details were gained)
defn: neuroplasticity
as our brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli via this
decreases with age
defn: synaptic pruning
as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken and strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains’ ability to process information
defn: long-term potentiation
the strengthening of neural connections through repeated use
the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory
requires NDMA receptor
defn: potentiate = to increase the potency or strength of something
quick paradigm of interplay of brain regions involved in memory
- memory begins as a sensory memory in the projection area of a given sensory modality
- this is brief unless maintained in consciousness, and moved as a short-term memory to the hippocampus in the temporal lobe
- this memory can be manipulated. through working memory while in the hippocampus and stored for later recall
- over very long periods of time, memories are gradually moved from the hippocampus back to the cerebral cortex
