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Psych/Soc Correct Deck > Ch. 2: Sensation and Perception > Flashcards

Ch. 2: Sensation and Perception Flashcards

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1
Q

defn: sensation vs. perception

A

sensation = transduction = taking the physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment and converting this info into electrical signals in the nervous system = a raw signal

  • performed by receptors in. the peripheral nervous system, which forward the stimuli to the central nervous system in the form of action potentials and neurotransmitters

perception = processing this information within the CNS in order to make sense of the info’s significance = includes both the external sensory experience and the internal activities of the brain and spinal cord

  • helps make us make sense of the world
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2
Q

defn: sensory receptors

A

neurons that respond to stimuli by triggering electrical signals that carry information to the CNS

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3
Q

defn: psychophysics

A

the relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions these stimuli evoke

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4
Q

defn: ganglia

A

collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the CNS

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5
Q

defn: projetion areas

A

further analyze sensory input after stimuli are transduced into electrical signals

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6
Q

func: photoreceptors

A

respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)

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7
Q

func: mechanoreceptors

A

respond to pressure or movement (hair cells respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear)

movement, vibration, hearing, rotational and linear acceleration

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8
Q

func: nociceptors

A

respond to painful or noxious stimuli

somatosensation

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9
Q

func: thermoreceptor

A

respond to changes in temperature

thermosensation

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10
Q

func: osmoreceptors

A

respond to osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)

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11
Q

func: olfactory receptors

A

respond to volatile compounds

smell

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12
Q

func: taste receptors

A

respond to dissolved compounds

taste

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13
Q

defn: threshold

A

the minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception

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14
Q

defn: absolute threshold

A

the minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system (how bright, loud, or intense a stimulus must be before it is sensed)

a threshold of sensation, not perception

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15
Q

defn: threshold of conscious perception

A

the level of intensity that a stimulus must pass in order to be consciously perceived by the brain

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16
Q

defn: subliminal perception

A

information that is received by the CNS but does not cross the threshold of conscious perception

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17
Q

what is the difference between absolute threshold and the threshold for conscious perception?

A

a stimulus below the absolute threshold will not be transduced and never reaches the CNS

a stimulus below the threshold of conscious perception arrives at the CNS, but does not reach the higher order brain regions that control attention and consciousness

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18
Q

defn: difference threshold (just noticeable difference)

A

the minimum change in magnitude required for an observer to perceive that two stimuli are diferent

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19
Q

defn: discrimination testing

A

participant is presented with a stimulus

stimulus is varied slightly and researchers ask the participant to report whether they perceive a change

the difference continues to be increased until the participant reports they notice the change, and this interval is recorded as the just noticeable difference

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20
Q

defn: Weber’s law

A

difference thresholds are proprotional and must be computed as percentages

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21
Q

defn: signal detection theory

A

how internal (psychological) and external (environmental) factors influence threshold of sensation and perception

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22
Q

defn: noise trials vs. catch trials

A

noise trials = trials in which the signal is presented

catch trials = trials in which the signal is not presented

after each trial, the subject is asked to indicate whether or not a signal was presented

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23
Q

defn: hit vs. miss vs. false alarm vs. correct negative

A

HIT = a trial in which the signal is presented and the subject correctly perceives the signal

MISS = a trial in which the subject fails to perceive the presented signal

FALSE ALARM = a trial in which the subject indicates perceving the signal, even though the signal was not presented

CORRECT NEGATIVE = a trial in which the subject correctly identifies that no signal was presented

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24
Q

defn: adaptation

A

our ability to detect a stimulus can change over time through this

can have a physiological (sensory) component and a psychological (perceptual) component

one way in which the mind and body try to focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli

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25
Q

Defn and func: sclera

A

Thick structural layer of the eye that covers the eye (this is the white of the eye)

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26
Q

Defn and func: choroidal vessels

A

Blood vessel intermingling complex between the sclera and the retina

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27
Q

What are the two sets of blood vessels that supply the eye with nutrients?

A

Choroidal vessels and retinal vessels

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28
Q

Defn and func: retina

A

Innermost layer of the eye (at the back of the eye); contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical info for the brain

like a screen made of neural elements and blood vessels

considered to be part of the CNS

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29
Q

Defn and func: cornea

A

Clear, domed window at front of the eye

Gathers and focuses incoming light

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30
Q

What are the two divisions of the front of the eye and where are they located in relation to the iris?

A

Anterior chamber: in front of the iris
Posterior chamber: between the iris and the lens

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31
Q

Defn and components (and their functions): iris

A

Iris: colored part of the eye

Composed of 2 muscles: dilator pupillae (opens pupil under sympathetic)

constrictor pupillae (constricts pupil under parasympathetic)

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32
Q

Defn and func: choroid

A

Vascular layer of connective tissue that is continues with the iris

Provides nourishment and surrounds retina

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33
Q

Func: ciliary body

A

Produces the aqueous humor that bathes the front of the eye

Cont. with the iris

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34
Q

Func: canal of Schlemm

A

Where the aqueous humor drains

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35
Q

Loc and func: lens

A

Lies behind the iris

helps control refraction of incoming light

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36
Q

Func: ciliary muscle

A

Part of the ciliary body, under parasymp. control

When it contracts, it pulls the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens to focus on an image as distance varies

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37
Q

What is the process that the ciliary muscle executes called?

A

Accommodation (ciliary muscle contracts, pulling the suspensory ligaments, and changing the shape of the lens to focus on an image as distance varies)

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38
Q

Defn and loc: vitreous humor

A

Transparent gel that supports the retina

lies behind the lens

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39
Q

Defn: duplexity/duplicity theory of vision

A

The retina contains 2 kinds of photoreceptors: light-and-dark detection AND color detection

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40
Q

Mnemonic: cones v. rods

A

Cones are for Color

Rods function best in Roduced light

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41
Q

Func: Cones

A

Used for color vision and to sense fine details
Most effective in bright light

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42
Q

Types of cones

A

S: short (blue)
M: medium (green)
L: long (Red)

Cones are named for the wavelengths of light they best absorb

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43
Q

Func: Rods

A

Rods are highly sensitive to photos, easier to stimulate than cones so they work best in low light

Can be stimulated by light of any color, but only allow sensation of light and dark (not good for fine details –> rods are spread over a large area of the retina)

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44
Q

Defn and func: rhodopsin

A

The pigment type that all rods contain

Is part of why rods are so sensitive

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45
Q

Loc and defn: macula

A

the central section of the retina

high concentration of cones

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46
Q

Defn and loc and func: fovea

A

Contains only cones

The centermost region of the macula

most functional in normal daylight vision bc high concentration of cones

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47
Q

Defn: optic disc

A

A region of the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye
Devoid of photoreceptors –> so there is a blind spot

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48
Q

Neuronal pathway from rods and cones to the optic nerve + impact

A

Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells which synapse with ganglion cells (axons group together to form optic nerve)

photos travel past several cell layers to reach rods and cones and then the info is transmitted forward as action potentials to reach the ganglion cells

49
Q

Defn and func: bipolar cells

A

Neurons in the pathway of rods and cones to the optic nerve

highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones

50
Q

Are there more rods or cones in the eye?

A

Rods!

51
Q

Defn and func: amacrine and horizontal cells

A

Receive input from multiple retinal cells in same area before info is passed to ganglion cells

accentuate slight differences in visual info in each bipolar cell

help with edge detection!

52
Q

Overall rule of visual pathwasy

A

If an object is on your left, then photons from that object stimulate the right side of the retina in EACH eye

so visual info from objects to your left is processed by the right side of your brain and vice versa

53
Q

Defn: the crossing over of visual information

A

nasal field stimulates temporal fibers
temporal field stimulates nasal fibers

recall: temporal and nasal visual fields
temporal and nasal visual fifbers

54
Q

Defn and event: optic chiasm

A

The location at which nasal fibers from the left and right eyes cross paths on the way to the brain

nasal fibers have to be redirected by the optic chiasm to return to their correct side of the brain

result: the visual info coming from an object on your left is processed by the right side of your brain

55
Q

Defn: optic tracts

A

the reorganized pathways after the cross of fibers at the optic chiasm

56
Q

Where does visual info go after optic tracts?

A

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus then to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe

superior colliculi of the midbrain

57
Q

Defn: parallel processing

A

the ability to analyze info of color, form, motion, and depth all at the same time under independent brain ptahways

58
Q

Defn, loc, func: parvocellular cells

A

Cells with very high color spatial resolution (fine detail!)
low temporal resolution (only works for slow objects)

neurons carrying info from the fovea and surrounding central portion of retina synapse

in the LGN

DETECT FORM

59
Q

Defn, loc, func: magnocellular cells

A

High temporal resolution (good for detecting motion)

Get most info from periphery

low spatial resolution (no detail, blurry)

60
Q

Defn and corresp. cells: depth perception

A

Depth perception: our ability to discriminate shape of environment and judge the distance of objects within it

Mostly based on differences between inputs brain gets from both eyes

Binocular neurons in the visual cortex

61
Q

Defn and loc: feature detectors

A

in the visual cortex

each feature detector cell type detects a particular, individual feature of an object

overall combo of feature detectors become activated in parallel so we can associate certain patterns of stimuli with expected outcomes

62
Q

defn: vestibular sense

A

our ability to both detect rotational and linear acceleration and to use this info to inform our sense of balance and spatial orientation

63
Q

defn + func + aka: pinna

A

the cartilaginous outside part of the ear

aka = auricle

channels sounds waves into the external auditory canal

64
Q

where do sound waves go after the external auditory canal?

A

the tympanic membrane (eardrum) which vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves

65
Q

do louder sounds have greater or lesser intensity? greater or smaller amplitude of vibration?

A

greater intensity

increasesd amplitude of vibration

66
Q

what does the tympanic membrane divide ?

A

the outer ear from the middle ear

67
Q

defn + func: ossicles

A

the three smallest bones in the body

help transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear

68
Q

explain the parts and pathway of the middle ear

A

the MALLEUS (hammer) is affixed to the tympanic membrane and acts on the INCUS (anvil) which acts on the STAPES (stirrup)

the baseplate of the stapes rests on the oval window of the cochlea, which is the entrance to the inner ear

69
Q

defn + func: eustachian tube

A

connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity

helps equalize the pressure between the middle ear and the environment

70
Q

explain the parts and pathways of the innear ear

A

the inner ear sits within a BONY LABRYINTH (a hollow region of the temporal bone containing the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircuar canals)

inside the bony labrythinh rests a continous collection of tubes and chambers THE MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH which contains recetpros for the sense of equilibrium and hearing

71
Q

defn: endolymph vs. perilymph

A

ENDOLYMPH = a potassium-rich fluid filling the membranous labyrinth

PERILYMPH = suspends the membranous labyrinth, transmits vibrations from the outside world and cushions the inner ear structures

72
Q

defn: cochlea

A

a spiral-shaped organ that contains receptors for hearing, divided into three parts called scalae which all run its entire length

73
Q

defn + loc: organ of Corti

A

the actual hearing apparatus

housed by the middle scala and resting on a thin, flexible membrane (the basilar membrane)

composed of thousands of hair cells, bathed in endolymph

on top: a relatively immobile membrane (the tectorial membrane)

74
Q

what do the other two scalae do?

A
  1. filled with perilymph
  2. surround the hearing apparatus
    are continous with the oval and round windows of the cochlea
75
Q

defn + func: round window

A

a membrane-covered hole in the cochlea

permits the perilymph to actually move within the cochlea (bc fluids are essentially incompressible)

76
Q

func + aka: auditory nerve

A

vestibulochoclear nerve

carries the electrical signal transduced from the physical timulus by the hair cells in the organ of corti to the CNS

77
Q

defn: vestibule

A

the portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricule and the saccule which are sensitive to linear acceleration = used as part of the balancing apparatus, determine one’s orientation in 3-D space

78
Q

defn + func: otoliths

A

modified hair cells in the utricle and saccule

as the body acclerates, these resist motion which bends and stimulates the underlying hair cells, which send a signal to the brain

79
Q

defn + func: semicircular canals

A

sensitive to rotatioinal acceleration

arranged perpendicularly to each other

each ends in a swelling (ampulla) where hair cells are located

when the heat rotates, endolymph in the canal resits the motion, bending the hair cells, sending a signal to the brain

80
Q

auditory pathway

A

sound info passes through the VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE to the BRAINSTEM where it ascends to the MEDIAL GENICULATE NUCLEUS (MGN = MUSIC) of the thalamus

NERVE FIBERS project to the AUDITORY CORTEX in the temporal lobe for sound processing

some info is sent to the SUPERIOR OLIVE (localizes the sound) and the INFERIOR COLLICULUS (involved in startle reflex, helps keep eyes fixed on a point while the head is turned (vestibulo-ocular reflex)

81
Q

defn + func: hair cells

A

have long tufts of stereocilia on their top surface

as vibrations reach the basilar membrane underlying the organ of Corti, the stereocilia adorning the hair cells begin to sway back and forth within the endolymph

the swaing causes ion channel opening, which cause a receptor potential

certain hair cells are connected directly to the tectorial membrane –> involved in amplifying the incoming sounds

82
Q

defn: place theory

A

the location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when that hair cell is vibrated

high-freq cause vibrations of the basilar membrane very close to the oval window

low-freq cause vibrations at the apex, away from the oval window

83
Q

defn: tonotopical organization of the cochlea

A

which hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of the sound

84
Q

What senses are there other than vision and hearing? (4)

A
  1. Smell (chemical)
  2. Taste (chemical)
  3. Somatosensation (touch)
  4. Kinesthetic sense
85
Q

What does smell respond to?

A

Volatile or aerosolized compounds (chemicals from the outside world)

86
Q

Loc, func, and aka: olfactory chemoreceptors

A

Aka: olfactory nerves

loc: olfactory epithelium at the upper part of the nasal cavity

func: chemical stimuli bind to respective chemoreceptors to cause a signal

87
Q

Defn and func: pheromones

A

Chemicals secreted by one animal and once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another animal to behave in a spec. way

impacts on foraging, social, and sexual behaviors

88
Q

Defn: olfactory pathway

A
  1. Inhale odor molecules into nasal passages
  2. Odor molecules contact olfactory nerves
  3. Receptor cells are activated, send signals to olfactory bulb
  4. Signals relayed via olfactory tract to brain higher regions
89
Q

How is taste detected?

A

Chemoreceptors sensitive to dissolve compound

90
Q

Defn and loc: taste buds

A

A group of cells that are the receptors for taste
found in little bumps on the tongue (papillae)

91
Q

Defn: papillae

A

Little bumps on your tongue that house taste buds

92
Q

Defn: taste pathway

A

Taste info travels from:
1. Taste buds to brainstem
2. To taste center in thalamus
3. To higher brain regions

93
Q

Defn: somatosensation

A

Touch!

94
Q

What are the four modalities of somatosensation?

A

Pressure, vibration, pain, temperature

95
Q

What are the 5 types of receptors that receive touch info and what do they respond do?

A
  1. Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure, vibration)
  2. Meissner corpuscles (light touch)
  3. Merkel cells (discs) (deep pressure, texture)
  4. Ruffini endings (stretch)
  5. Free nerve endings (pain and temperature)
96
Q

Defn: somatosensation pathway

A
  1. Transduction in the receptors
  2. Signal sent to CNS
  3. Info travels to somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe
97
Q

Defn: two-point threshold

A

Related to: touch

the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that they are felt as distinct stimuli

98
Q

Defn: physiological zero

A

Related to: touch

the normal temperature of the skin that temperature is judged relative to (an object feels cold bc its temp is less than physiological 0)

99
Q

Defn and how: gate theory of pain

A

Related to: touch

a special gating mechanism can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain

how? the spinal cord preferentially forwards signal from other touch modalities to reduce the sensatio nof pain

100
Q

Defn and func: nociceptors

A

The majority of sensory receptors that receive info and send pain signals

101
Q

Defn and aka: proprioception

A

Aka: kinesthetic sense

the ability to tell where you are in space

102
Q

Defn, loc, func: proprioceptors

A

The receptors for proprioception (where are you in space)

mostly in muscles and joints

has roles in hand-eye coordination, balance, mobility

103
Q

What are the two main theories of object recognition?

A

Bottom-up (data-driven) processing

Top-down (conceptually driven processing)

104
Q

Defn: bottom-up processing

A

Data-driven processing

Object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection

brain takes individual sensory stimuli and combines into a cohesive image before determining what the object is

105
Q

Defn and func: top-down processing

A

Conceptually-driven processing

Driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole and then the components based on expectations

ALLOWS US TO quickly recognize objects without analyzing their parts

106
Q

What would be the impact if we didn’t have bottom-up processing? Top-down processing?

A

If no bottom-up: difficulty discriminating between slight object differences

If no top-down: inefficient at recognizing objects (each time we look at something it would feel like the first time)

107
Q

Defn: perceptual organization

A

the ability to create a complete picture or idea by combining top-down and bottom-up with all other sensory cues

108
Q

What are monocular and binocular cues? (macro)

A

visual cues interpreted by the brain to help with depth perception

109
Q

Defns: monocular cues (4)

A

Requires one eye

  1. Relative size: objects appear larger the closer they are
  2. Interposition: when two objects overlap, the front is closer
  3. Linear perspective: convergence of parallel lines at a distance
  4. Motion parallax: objects closer to us seem to move faster when we change our field of vision
110
Q

Defns: binocular cues

A
  1. Retinal disparity: the slight diff. in images projected on the two retinas (exploited in VR to mimic depth)
  2. Convergence: the brain detects the angle btwn the 2 eyes required to bring an object into focus (used to perceive distance)
111
Q

Defn: constancy

A

Our ability to perceive that certain characteristics of objects remain the same, despite environmental changes

112
Q

What do we have constancy for?

A

Brightness, size, shape, color

113
Q

Defn and list: Gestalt principles

A

A set of visual rules that account for the fat that the brain views incomplete stimuli in organized ways

  1. Law of proximity
  2. Law of similarity
  3. Law of good continuation
  4. Subjective contours
  5. Closure
    6*. Law of pragnanz
114
Q

Defn: law of proximity

A

A Gestalt principle

elements close to one another are often perceived as a unit

115
Q

Defn: law of similarity

A

Gestalt principle

objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

116
Q

Defn: law of good continuation

A

Gestalt principle

elements that appear to follow the same path tend to be grouped (there is a tendency to perceive cont. patterns in stimuli not abrupt changes)

117
Q

Defn: subjective contours

A

Gestalt principle

you perceive shapes that are not actually a stimulus bc you perceive contours created by other shapes that do exist

118
Q

Defn: law of closure

A

Gestalt principle

when a space is enclosed by a contour, it is often perceived as a complete figure

119
Q

Defn: law of pragnanz

A

The governing rule of Gestalt principles

perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

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