Ch. 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards
What group do sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons belong to?
Nerve cells
What do sensory neurons do? What is another name for them?
Transmit sensory info FROM receptors TO spinal cord and brain; also called afferent neurons
What do motor neurons do? What is another name for them?
Transmit motor info FROM the brain and spinal cord TO muscles and glands; also called efferent neurons
Mnemonic for remember afferent vs. efferent neurons
Afferent neurons ascend in the cord to the brain; efferent neurons exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body
Defn: interneuron
The most numerous neuron type; located in the brain and spinal cord, linked to reflexive behavior
Defn: reflex arcs
Neural circuits that control reflexive behavior involving interneurons
Components: central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Components: peripheral nervous system
Nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord
Goal: peripheral nervous system
Connect the CNS to the rest of the body
Components: somatic nervous system
Sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joint, and muscles
Goal: autonomic nervous system
Regulate heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions, body temperature (manages involuntary muscles assoc. with internal organs and glands) AUTOMATIC
Goal, body states: parasympathetic nervous system
Conserve energy; associated with resting and sleeping states
What effects does the parasympathetic nervous system have on the body?
- Constricts pupils
- Stimulates saliva
- Constricts bronchi
- Slows heartbeat
- Stimulates peristalsis and secretion
- Stimulates bile release
- Contracts bladder
Mnemonic: Parasympathetic vs. sympathetic nervous systems
PARASYMPATHETIC: rest and digest
SYMPATHETIC: fight or flight
Main neurotransmitter assoc. with the parasympathetic nervous system?
ACh (Acetylcholine)
Body state: sympathetic nervous system
Stress
What effects does the sympathetic nervous system have on the body?
- Dilates pupils
- Inhibits salivation
- Relaxes bronchi
- Accelerates heartbeat
- Stimulates sweating or piloerection
- Inhibits peristalsis and secretion
- Stimulates glucose production and release
- Secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline
- Inhibits bladder contraction
- Stimulates orgasm
Defn and goal: meninges
Thick, three-layered connective tissue sheath covering the brain
Protects the brain by keeping it anchored, resorbs CSF
Layers of the meninges
Outer: dura mater – direct to skull
Middle: arachnoid mater
Inner: pia mater – direct o brain
Defn and goal: cerebrospinal fluid
Aq. soln. that nourishes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protecting cushion
Defn and goal: brain ventricles
Specialized cells that produce CSF
3 main brain segments
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
Defn: brainstem
hindbrain + midbrain
most primitive brain region
Defn and goal: limbic system
Group of neural structures assoc. with emotion and memory
Aggression, fear, pleasure, pain
Defn and goal: cerebral cortex
Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres
Assoc. with language processing, problem solving, impulse control, and long-term planning
Forebrain segments and overall goals
Cerebral cortex: complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
Basal ganglia: Movement
Limbic system: emotion and memory
Thalamus: Sensory relay station
Hypothalamus: Hunger and thirst; emotion
Midbrain segments and overall goals
Inferior and superior colliculi: Sensorimotor reflexes
Hindbrain segments and overall goals
Cerebellum: refined motor movements
Medulla oblongata: Heart, vital reflexes (vomiting, coughing)
Reticular formation: Arousal, alertness
Pons: communication within the brain, breathing
Prenatal development pathway of the brain
Brain develops from neural tube
At first: 3 swellings that correspond to the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
Hindbrain and midbrain later divided into two swellings each, creates 5 total swellings in the mature neural tube
5 segments of the embryonic brain
Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system) + diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland) = prosencephalon (forebrain)
mesencephalon = midbrain
metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) + myelencephelon (medulla oblongata) = rhombencephelon (hindbrain)
spinal cord
Location and main function: hindbrain
Located where the brain meets the spinal cord
Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal processes
VITAL FUNCTIONS NECESSARY FOR SURIVAL
Function: Medulla oblongata
Regulates vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, digestion
Function: Pons
Lies above the medulla, contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
Function: Cerebellum
Helps maintain posture, balance, coordinates body movements
Damage to the cerebellum? Affects of alcohol on the cerebellum?
Causes clumsiness, slurred speech, loss of balance
Impairs cerebellum functioning –> affects speech and balance
Location and main function: midbrain
Just above the hindbrain
Receives sensory and motor info from the rest of the body
Assoc. with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
Mnemonic: superior vs. inferior colliculus
Superior = visual sensory input (consonants)
Inferior = auditory sensory input (vowels)
Main function: forebrain
Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes; emotion and memory
EEG: long name + main goal
Electroenchephalogram
Place several electrodes on the scalp to study electrical activity generated by large groups of neurons
rCBF: long name + goal
regional cerebral blood flow
detects patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow
CT: long name + process
computed (axial) tomography
x-rays taken at multiple angles, processed by computer to create crossectional images
PET: long name + process
positron emission tomography
radioactive sugar injected and absorbed; dispersion and uptake through target tissue imaged
MRI: long name + process
magnetic resonance imaging
magnetic field that interacts with H atoms to map out H dense body regions
fMRI: long name + process
functional MRI
spec. measures changes assoc. with blood flow
useful for monitoring neural activity
Defn: neurotransmitter
A chemical used by neurons to send signals to other neurons
Defn: agonist
A drug that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
Defn: antagonist
Drugs that block the action of neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine: What? Where? Why? Loss?
Neurotransmitter
Central and peripheral nervous systems
In peripheral: used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles
In parasympathetic: main
In sympathetic: In ganglia, for innervating sweat glands
In CNS: linked to attention and arousal
Loss: linked with Alzheimer’s
Catecholamine: What? 3 that fit into this category? 2 other names? Role?
Neurotransmitter class
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
Monoamines, biogenic amines
Important roles in experience of emotions
Epinephrine and norephinephrine: What? Why? How?
Neurotransmitters
Epinephrine = adrenaline; Norepinephrine = noradrenaline
Involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness
Primary neurotransmitter of sympathetic NS –> promote fight or flight
norepinephrine: more local
epinephrine: systemic, acts as hormone
High levels of epinephrine? Low levels?
High: anxiety and mania
Low: depression
Dopamine: What? Why? How? Imbalance? Loss?
Neurotransmitter
Movement and posture (high concentrations in basal ganglia for smooth movement and posture)
Imbalance: schizophrenia
Loss: Parkinson’s –> tremors, jerky movements, postural instability
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
Delusions, hallucinations, and agitation assoc. with schizophrenia arise from too much dopamine or oversensitivity to dopamine
Serotonin: What? For? High? Low?
Monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter
Regulates mood, eat, sleep, dream
High levels: mania
Low levels: depression
GABA: Long name? What? For? How?
Gamma-aminobutyric acid
Neurotransmitter
Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, plays a role in stabilizing brain neural activity
causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic memory
Glycine as a neurotransmitter: Where? How? Why?
Inhibitory in CNS
Increases chloride influx into neuron (hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane)
Glutamate as a neurotransmitter: Where? How?
Excitatory in CNS
Neuropeptides (aka): What? For? How?
Neuromodulators
More complicated chain of events, so slower, longer effects
ENDORPHINS: natural painkillers produced in the brain (relative: enkephalins): have similar actions to morphine and opioids
Defn: adaptive value
the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species
Defn: concordance rate
the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
Why are twin studies and adoption studies helpful?
Help us distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics
defn + aka: extirpation
ablation
various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed
defn + func + brain location: thalamus
within the forebrain
relay station for incoming sensory information (except for smell)
after receiving incoming sensory impulses, sorts and transmits them to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
a sensory “way station”
defn + func + brain location + 3 sections: hypothalamus
within the forebrain
sections: lateral, ventromedial, anterior
homeostatic functions + key in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior
helps control endocrine functions, as well as autonomic nervous system
receptors within the hypothalamus regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance –> when any of these functions are out of balance, the hypothalamus detects it and signals to the body to correct the imblance
mnemonic: functions of the hypothalamus
the FOUR F’s
feeding
fighting
flighting
(sexual) functioning
defn + what happens when this is removed in rats: lateral hypothalamus
the hunger center
detects when the body needs more food or fluids –> triggers eating and drinking
when removed: rats refuse to eat and drink and must be force-fed with tubes to survive
func + what happens when this is damaged: ventromedial hypothalamus
the “satiety center”
provides signals to stop eating
damage: usually leads to obesity
func + what happens when damaged: anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior
when stimulated: hump anything!
when damaged: permanent inhibition of sexual activity
regulates sleep and body temperature
mnemonic: lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus
when the Lateral Hypothalamus is removed, one Lacks Hunger
when the VentroMedial Hypothalamus is destroyed one is Very Much Hungry
func + loc: posterior pituitary gland
axonal projections from the hypothalamus
the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones (antidiuretic hormone (ADH, = vasopressin) and oxytocin)
func + brain loc: pineal gland
forebrain
key player in several biological rhythms (most notably –> secretes melatonin)
receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
func + defn: basal ganglia
a group of structures in the middle of the brain
coordinates muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and the spinal cord
helps make our movements smooth and our posture steady
may have a role in schizophrenia and OCD
defn + func: extrapyramidal system
gathers info about body position and carries this info to the CNS, but does not function directly through motor neurons
char + defn: Parkinson’s disease
a chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia
characterized by jerky movements, uncontrolled resting tremors
defn + comp: limbic system
a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain
associated with emotion and memory
septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex
defn + func: septal nuclei
part of the limbic system
one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
mild stimulation = intensely pleasurable
association with addictive behavior
defn + func: amygdala
part of the limbic system
important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear, rage)
when damaged: aggression and fear reactions are markedly reduced
lesions = result in docility and hypersexual states
defn + func: hippocampus
part of the limbic system
vital role in learning and memory processes
helps consolidate information to form long-term memories
can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex
defn + func: fornix
a long projection that the hippocampus uses to communicate with other portions of the limbic system
defn: anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia
ANTEROGRADE = not being able to establish new long-term memories, but memory for events that occurred before the injury are intact
RETROGRADE = memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
defn + func: anterior cingulate cortex
part of the limbic system
functions in higher order cognitive processes (including regulation of impulse control and decision-making) due to the connection with the frontal and parietal lobes
maintains connections to other parts of the limbic system (role in motivation and emotion)
defn + aka + char: cerebral cortex
the outer surface of the brain
aka: neocortex (the most recent brain region to evolve)
has numerous bumps (gyri) and folds (sulci) which provides increased surface area
divided into four lobes
mnemonic: lobes of the brain
F-POT
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
comp: frontal lobe
TWO BASIC REGIONS = the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex
func: prefrontal cortex
part of the frontal lobe
manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions
communicates with the reticular formation in the brainstem to regulate attention and alertness
supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning
what happens when there is damage to the prefrontal cortex?
impairs overall supervisory functions
more impulsive, less in control of their behavior, increased tendency toward angry outbursts, higher predisposition to crying
vulgar and inappropriate sexual remarks
apathetic towards emotional responses of others
defn + ex: association area
an area that integrates input from diverse brain regions
ex: prefrontal cortex
defn + ex: projection area
perform more rudimentary perceptual and motor tasks
kind of the opposite of an association area
ex: primary motor cortex
func + loc: primary motor cortex
on the precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes
initiate voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
defn: motor homunculus
how we visualize the organizational pattern of the neurons in the motor cortex arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected
defn + func + loc: Broca’s area
in the frontal lobe
vitally important to speech production
usually in the dominant hemisphere (left)
comp + loc: parietal lobe
located to the rear of the frontal lobe
the somatosensory cortex is located on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus) and is involved in somatosensory info processing (projection area, destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temp, and pain)
what is the central region of the parietal lobe associated with?
spatial processing and manipulation
makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, do spatial manipulation of objects, and apply spatial orientation skills
func + loc: occipital lobes
very rear of the brain
visual cortex (striate cortex = furrowed, striped)
implications in learning and motor control
comp + func: temporal lobes
auditory cortex = primary site of sound processing
Wernicke’s area = assoc. with language reception and comprehension
functions in memory processing, emotion, and language
contains the hippocampus
defn: speech shadowing
a technique used to research studying and speech perception
involves participants reciting along with auditory inputs
requires successful functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal cortex
defn: contralaterally vs. ipsilaterally
CONTRALATERALLY one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body
IPSILATERALLY cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body
defn: corpus callosum
connects and shares info between the two cerebral hemispheres
without this, each hemisphere has its own function and specialization that is no longer accessible to the other
defn + func: dominant vs. nondominant hemisphere
DOMINANT (left) = analytic, managing details, language, logic, math, language production (Broca), language comprehension (Wernicke)
NONDOMINANT (right) = intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing, less prominent role in language (like the emotional tone)_
function of the dominant vs. nondominant hemisphere within the
visual system
auditory system
language
movement
spatial processes
visual - DOM: letters, words, NONDOM: faces
auditory - DOM: language-related sounds, NONDOM: music
language - DOM: speech, reading, writing, math, NONDOM: emotions
movement - DOM: complex voluntary movement, NONDOM: n/a
spatial processes - DOM: n/a, NONDOM: geometry, sense of direction
defn: critical periods
specific periods in development where children are particularly susceptible to environmental factors
absence of the appropriate environmental factors may result in failure to learn a given skill or trait during the critical period (which may also mean learning that skill later on is difficult or impossible)
defn: neuralation
the start of the development of the nervous system
starts at 3 to 4 weeks gestational age
occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called the neural crest and will migrate through the body to form disparate tissues (dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, calcitonin-producing cells in the thyroid)
the remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube (will ultimately form the CNS)w
what are the two plates of the neural tube? + func of neural tube
ALAR plate = differentiates sensory neurons
BASAL plate = differentiates motor neurons
overtime the neural tube invaginates and folds on itself many times
func: placenta
transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returrning water and waste to the motehr
effect: thalidomide
mothers who took this drug (for morning sickness) often gave birth to babies with missing and malformed limbs, defects of the heart, eyes, ears, digestive tract, and kidneys
what things can affect development of the fetus?
rubella –> can cross the placenta –> can cause cataracts, deafness, heart defects, intellectual disability
viral infections (measles, mumps, hepatitis, influenza, varicella, herpes)
antiepileptic medications –> neural tube defects, neural tube fails to close completely –> spina bifida, anencephaly
maternal malnutirion –> abnormal development
protein deficiency of the mother –> slowed growth, intellectual disability, reduced disease immunity
maternal narcotic addiction –> chemically dependent infants, severe withdrawal after birth
maternal cigarette use –> slowed growth, increased fetal HR, premature birth
maternal alcohol use 00> slowed growth, physically and psychologically
prenatal x-ray exposure –> intellectual disability, skull, spinal cord, and eye defects, cleft palate, limb deformities
defn: reflex
a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input
what are the the four main infant primitive reflexes?
- rooting reflex
- Moro reflex
- Babinski reflex
- grasping reflex
defn: rooting reflex
the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
relates to feeding
defn: Moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying
defn: Babinski reflex
the toes spread apart atuomatically when the sole of the foot is stimulatedd
defn: grasping reflex
occurs when infants close their fingers around an object placed in their hand
defn: gross vs. fine motor skills
GROSS = incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion (sitting, crawling, walking)
FINE = involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement (tracking motion, drawing, catching, waving)
defN: stranger anxiety
a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals
defn: separation anxiety
a fear of being separated from the parental figure
defn: parallel play
children play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
defn: developmental milestones
several abilities and behaviors that are expected to emerge at particular times in a person’s development
what are the general patterns of development of
gross motor skills
motor skills
social skills
language skills
GROSS MOTOR = head to toe order
MOTOR = center of the body skills prior to extremities
SOCIAL = parent to self to other oriented
LANGUAGE = becomes more complex and structured
what is typical social development at
7 months
1 year
3 years
5 years
6-12
teenage
7 months: stranger anxiety
1 year: separation anxiety
3 years: assigned gender, gender-stereotyped play, full name
5: conformity to peers, romantic feelings
6 - 12: same gender friends
teenage: self-sufficient, desire for independence through rebelling, inter-gender friendships more common, sexual orientation and gender identity
