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Psych/Soc Correct Deck > Ch. 1: Biology and Behavior > Flashcards

Ch. 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards

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1
Q

What group do sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons belong to?

A

Nerve cells

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2
Q

What do sensory neurons do? What is another name for them?

A

Transmit sensory info FROM receptors TO spinal cord and brain; also called afferent neurons

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3
Q

What do motor neurons do? What is another name for them?

A

Transmit motor info FROM the brain and spinal cord TO muscles and glands; also called efferent neurons

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4
Q

Mnemonic for remember afferent vs. efferent neurons

A

Afferent neurons ascend in the cord to the brain; efferent neurons exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body

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5
Q

Defn: interneuron

A

The most numerous neuron type; located in the brain and spinal cord, linked to reflexive behavior

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6
Q

Defn: reflex arcs

A

Neural circuits that control reflexive behavior involving interneurons

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7
Q

Components: central nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord

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8
Q

Components: peripheral nervous system

A

Nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord

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9
Q

Goal: peripheral nervous system

A

Connect the CNS to the rest of the body

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10
Q

Components: somatic nervous system

A

Sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joint, and muscles

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11
Q

Goal: autonomic nervous system

A

Regulate heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions, body temperature (manages involuntary muscles assoc. with internal organs and glands) AUTOMATIC

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12
Q

Goal, body states: parasympathetic nervous system

A

Conserve energy; associated with resting and sleeping states

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13
Q

What effects does the parasympathetic nervous system have on the body?

A
  1. Constricts pupils
  2. Stimulates saliva
  3. Constricts bronchi
  4. Slows heartbeat
  5. Stimulates peristalsis and secretion
  6. Stimulates bile release
  7. Contracts bladder
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14
Q

Mnemonic: Parasympathetic vs. sympathetic nervous systems

A

PARASYMPATHETIC: rest and digest
SYMPATHETIC: fight or flight

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15
Q

Main neurotransmitter assoc. with the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

ACh (Acetylcholine)

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16
Q

Body state: sympathetic nervous system

A

Stress

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17
Q

What effects does the sympathetic nervous system have on the body?

A
  1. Dilates pupils
  2. Inhibits salivation
  3. Relaxes bronchi
  4. Accelerates heartbeat
  5. Stimulates sweating or piloerection
  6. Inhibits peristalsis and secretion
  7. Stimulates glucose production and release
  8. Secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline
  9. Inhibits bladder contraction
  10. Stimulates orgasm
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18
Q

Defn and goal: meninges

A

Thick, three-layered connective tissue sheath covering the brain

Protects the brain by keeping it anchored, resorbs CSF

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19
Q

Layers of the meninges

A

Outer: dura mater – direct to skull
Middle: arachnoid mater
Inner: pia mater – direct o brain

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20
Q

Defn and goal: cerebrospinal fluid

A

Aq. soln. that nourishes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protecting cushion

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21
Q

Defn and goal: brain ventricles

A

Specialized cells that produce CSF

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22
Q

3 main brain segments

A

hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

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23
Q

Defn: brainstem

A

hindbrain + midbrain

most primitive brain region

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24
Q

Defn and goal: limbic system

A

Group of neural structures assoc. with emotion and memory

Aggression, fear, pleasure, pain

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25
Q

Defn and goal: cerebral cortex

A

Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres

Assoc. with language processing, problem solving, impulse control, and long-term planning

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26
Q

Forebrain segments and overall goals

A

Cerebral cortex: complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
Basal ganglia: Movement
Limbic system: emotion and memory
Thalamus: Sensory relay station
Hypothalamus: Hunger and thirst; emotion

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27
Q

Midbrain segments and overall goals

A

Inferior and superior colliculi: Sensorimotor reflexes

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28
Q

Hindbrain segments and overall goals

A

Cerebellum: refined motor movements
Medulla oblongata: Heart, vital reflexes (vomiting, coughing)
Reticular formation: Arousal, alertness
Pons: communication within the brain, breathing

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29
Q

Prenatal development pathway of the brain

A

Brain develops from neural tube

At first: 3 swellings that correspond to the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

Hindbrain and midbrain later divided into two swellings each, creates 5 total swellings in the mature neural tube

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30
Q

5 segments of the embryonic brain

A

Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system) + diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland) = prosencephalon (forebrain)
mesencephalon = midbrain
metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) + myelencephelon (medulla oblongata) = rhombencephelon (hindbrain)
spinal cord

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31
Q

Location and main function: hindbrain

A

Located where the brain meets the spinal cord

Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal processes

VITAL FUNCTIONS NECESSARY FOR SURIVAL

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32
Q

Function: Medulla oblongata

A

Regulates vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, digestion

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33
Q

Function: Pons

A

Lies above the medulla, contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla

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34
Q

Function: Cerebellum

A

Helps maintain posture, balance, coordinates body movements

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35
Q

Damage to the cerebellum? Affects of alcohol on the cerebellum?

A

Causes clumsiness, slurred speech, loss of balance

Impairs cerebellum functioning –> affects speech and balance

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36
Q

Location and main function: midbrain

A

Just above the hindbrain

Receives sensory and motor info from the rest of the body

Assoc. with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli

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37
Q

Mnemonic: superior vs. inferior colliculus

A

Superior = visual sensory input (consonants)
Inferior = auditory sensory input (vowels)

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38
Q

Main function: forebrain

A

Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes; emotion and memory

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39
Q

EEG: long name + main goal

A

Electroenchephalogram

Place several electrodes on the scalp to study electrical activity generated by large groups of neurons

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40
Q

rCBF: long name + goal

A

regional cerebral blood flow

detects patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow

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41
Q

CT: long name + process

A

computed (axial) tomography

x-rays taken at multiple angles, processed by computer to create crossectional images

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42
Q

PET: long name + process

A

positron emission tomography

radioactive sugar injected and absorbed; dispersion and uptake through target tissue imaged

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43
Q

MRI: long name + process

A

magnetic resonance imaging

magnetic field that interacts with H atoms to map out H dense body regions

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44
Q

fMRI: long name + process

A

functional MRI

spec. measures changes assoc. with blood flow
useful for monitoring neural activity

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45
Q

Defn: neurotransmitter

A

A chemical used by neurons to send signals to other neurons

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46
Q

Defn: agonist

A

A drug that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

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47
Q

Defn: antagonist

A

Drugs that block the action of neurotransmitters

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48
Q

Acetylcholine: What? Where? Why? Loss?

A

Neurotransmitter

Central and peripheral nervous systems

In peripheral: used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles

In parasympathetic: main

In sympathetic: In ganglia, for innervating sweat glands

In CNS: linked to attention and arousal

Loss: linked with Alzheimer’s

49
Q

Catecholamine: What? 3 that fit into this category? 2 other names? Role?

A

Neurotransmitter class

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine

Monoamines, biogenic amines

Important roles in experience of emotions

50
Q

Epinephrine and norephinephrine: What? Why? How?

A

Neurotransmitters

Epinephrine = adrenaline; Norepinephrine = noradrenaline

Involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness

Primary neurotransmitter of sympathetic NS –> promote fight or flight

norepinephrine: more local

epinephrine: systemic, acts as hormone

51
Q

High levels of epinephrine? Low levels?

A

High: anxiety and mania
Low: depression

52
Q

Dopamine: What? Why? How? Imbalance? Loss?

A

Neurotransmitter

Movement and posture (high concentrations in basal ganglia for smooth movement and posture)

Imbalance: schizophrenia

Loss: Parkinson’s –> tremors, jerky movements, postural instability

53
Q

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

A

Delusions, hallucinations, and agitation assoc. with schizophrenia arise from too much dopamine or oversensitivity to dopamine

54
Q

Serotonin: What? For? High? Low?

A

Monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter

Regulates mood, eat, sleep, dream

High levels: mania
Low levels: depression

55
Q

GABA: Long name? What? For? How?

A

Gamma-aminobutyric acid

Neurotransmitter

Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, plays a role in stabilizing brain neural activity

causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic memory

56
Q

Glycine as a neurotransmitter: Where? How? Why?

A

Inhibitory in CNS

Increases chloride influx into neuron (hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane)

57
Q

Glutamate as a neurotransmitter: Where? How?

A

Excitatory in CNS

58
Q

Neuropeptides (aka): What? For? How?

A

Neuromodulators

More complicated chain of events, so slower, longer effects

ENDORPHINS: natural painkillers produced in the brain (relative: enkephalins): have similar actions to morphine and opioids

59
Q

Defn: adaptive value

A

the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species

60
Q

Defn: concordance rate

A

the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait

61
Q

Why are twin studies and adoption studies helpful?

A

Help us distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics

62
Q

defn + aka: extirpation

A

ablation

various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed

63
Q

defn + func + brain location: thalamus

A

within the forebrain

relay station for incoming sensory information (except for smell)

after receiving incoming sensory impulses, sorts and transmits them to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex

a sensory “way station”

64
Q

defn + func + brain location + 3 sections: hypothalamus

A

within the forebrain

sections: lateral, ventromedial, anterior

homeostatic functions + key in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior

helps control endocrine functions, as well as autonomic nervous system

receptors within the hypothalamus regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance –> when any of these functions are out of balance, the hypothalamus detects it and signals to the body to correct the imblance

65
Q

mnemonic: functions of the hypothalamus

A

the FOUR F’s

feeding
fighting
flighting
(sexual) functioning

66
Q

defn + what happens when this is removed in rats: lateral hypothalamus

A

the hunger center

detects when the body needs more food or fluids –> triggers eating and drinking

when removed: rats refuse to eat and drink and must be force-fed with tubes to survive

67
Q

func + what happens when this is damaged: ventromedial hypothalamus

A

the “satiety center”

provides signals to stop eating

damage: usually leads to obesity

68
Q

func + what happens when damaged: anterior hypothalamus

A

controls sexual behavior

when stimulated: hump anything!

when damaged: permanent inhibition of sexual activity

regulates sleep and body temperature

69
Q

mnemonic: lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus

A

when the Lateral Hypothalamus is removed, one Lacks Hunger

when the VentroMedial Hypothalamus is destroyed one is Very Much Hungry

70
Q

func + loc: posterior pituitary gland

A

axonal projections from the hypothalamus

the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones (antidiuretic hormone (ADH, = vasopressin) and oxytocin)

71
Q

func + brain loc: pineal gland

A

forebrain

key player in several biological rhythms (most notably –> secretes melatonin)

receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

72
Q

func + defn: basal ganglia

A

a group of structures in the middle of the brain

coordinates muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and the spinal cord

helps make our movements smooth and our posture steady

may have a role in schizophrenia and OCD

73
Q

defn + func: extrapyramidal system

A

gathers info about body position and carries this info to the CNS, but does not function directly through motor neurons

74
Q

char + defn: Parkinson’s disease

A

a chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia

characterized by jerky movements, uncontrolled resting tremors

75
Q

defn + comp: limbic system

A

a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain

associated with emotion and memory

septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex

76
Q

defn + func: septal nuclei

A

part of the limbic system

one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain

mild stimulation = intensely pleasurable

association with addictive behavior

77
Q

defn + func: amygdala

A

part of the limbic system

important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear, rage)

when damaged: aggression and fear reactions are markedly reduced

lesions = result in docility and hypersexual states

78
Q

defn + func: hippocampus

A

part of the limbic system

vital role in learning and memory processes

helps consolidate information to form long-term memories

can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex

79
Q

defn + func: fornix

A

a long projection that the hippocampus uses to communicate with other portions of the limbic system

80
Q

defn: anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia

A

ANTEROGRADE = not being able to establish new long-term memories, but memory for events that occurred before the injury are intact

RETROGRADE = memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury

81
Q

defn + func: anterior cingulate cortex

A

part of the limbic system

functions in higher order cognitive processes (including regulation of impulse control and decision-making) due to the connection with the frontal and parietal lobes

maintains connections to other parts of the limbic system (role in motivation and emotion)

82
Q

defn + aka + char: cerebral cortex

A

the outer surface of the brain

aka: neocortex (the most recent brain region to evolve)

has numerous bumps (gyri) and folds (sulci) which provides increased surface area

divided into four lobes

83
Q

mnemonic: lobes of the brain

A

F-POT

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal

84
Q

comp: frontal lobe

A

TWO BASIC REGIONS = the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex

85
Q

func: prefrontal cortex

A

part of the frontal lobe

manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions

communicates with the reticular formation in the brainstem to regulate attention and alertness

supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning

86
Q

what happens when there is damage to the prefrontal cortex?

A

impairs overall supervisory functions

more impulsive, less in control of their behavior, increased tendency toward angry outbursts, higher predisposition to crying

vulgar and inappropriate sexual remarks

apathetic towards emotional responses of others

87
Q

defn + ex: association area

A

an area that integrates input from diverse brain regions

ex: prefrontal cortex

88
Q

defn + ex: projection area

A

perform more rudimentary perceptual and motor tasks

kind of the opposite of an association area

ex: primary motor cortex

89
Q

func + loc: primary motor cortex

A

on the precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes

initiate voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles

90
Q

defn: motor homunculus

A

how we visualize the organizational pattern of the neurons in the motor cortex arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected

91
Q

defn + func + loc: Broca’s area

A

in the frontal lobe

vitally important to speech production

usually in the dominant hemisphere (left)

92
Q

comp + loc: parietal lobe

A

located to the rear of the frontal lobe

the somatosensory cortex is located on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus) and is involved in somatosensory info processing (projection area, destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temp, and pain)

93
Q

what is the central region of the parietal lobe associated with?

A

spatial processing and manipulation

makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, do spatial manipulation of objects, and apply spatial orientation skills

94
Q

func + loc: occipital lobes

A

very rear of the brain

visual cortex (striate cortex = furrowed, striped)

implications in learning and motor control

95
Q

comp + func: temporal lobes

A

auditory cortex = primary site of sound processing

Wernicke’s area = assoc. with language reception and comprehension

functions in memory processing, emotion, and language

contains the hippocampus

96
Q

defn: speech shadowing

A

a technique used to research studying and speech perception

involves participants reciting along with auditory inputs

requires successful functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal cortex

97
Q

defn: contralaterally vs. ipsilaterally

A

CONTRALATERALLY one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body

IPSILATERALLY cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body

98
Q

defn: corpus callosum

A

connects and shares info between the two cerebral hemispheres

without this, each hemisphere has its own function and specialization that is no longer accessible to the other

99
Q

defn + func: dominant vs. nondominant hemisphere

A

DOMINANT (left) = analytic, managing details, language, logic, math, language production (Broca), language comprehension (Wernicke)

NONDOMINANT (right) = intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing, less prominent role in language (like the emotional tone)_

100
Q

function of the dominant vs. nondominant hemisphere within the
visual system
auditory system
language
movement
spatial processes

A

visual - DOM: letters, words, NONDOM: faces
auditory - DOM: language-related sounds, NONDOM: music
language - DOM: speech, reading, writing, math, NONDOM: emotions
movement - DOM: complex voluntary movement, NONDOM: n/a
spatial processes - DOM: n/a, NONDOM: geometry, sense of direction

101
Q

defn: critical periods

A

specific periods in development where children are particularly susceptible to environmental factors

absence of the appropriate environmental factors may result in failure to learn a given skill or trait during the critical period (which may also mean learning that skill later on is difficult or impossible)

102
Q

defn: neuralation

A

the start of the development of the nervous system

starts at 3 to 4 weeks gestational age

occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds

cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called the neural crest and will migrate through the body to form disparate tissues (dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, calcitonin-producing cells in the thyroid)

the remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube (will ultimately form the CNS)w

103
Q

what are the two plates of the neural tube? + func of neural tube

A

ALAR plate = differentiates sensory neurons

BASAL plate = differentiates motor neurons

overtime the neural tube invaginates and folds on itself many times

104
Q

func: placenta

A

transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returrning water and waste to the motehr

105
Q

effect: thalidomide

A

mothers who took this drug (for morning sickness) often gave birth to babies with missing and malformed limbs, defects of the heart, eyes, ears, digestive tract, and kidneys

106
Q

what things can affect development of the fetus?

A

rubella –> can cross the placenta –> can cause cataracts, deafness, heart defects, intellectual disability

viral infections (measles, mumps, hepatitis, influenza, varicella, herpes)

antiepileptic medications –> neural tube defects, neural tube fails to close completely –> spina bifida, anencephaly

maternal malnutirion –> abnormal development

protein deficiency of the mother –> slowed growth, intellectual disability, reduced disease immunity

maternal narcotic addiction –> chemically dependent infants, severe withdrawal after birth

maternal cigarette use –> slowed growth, increased fetal HR, premature birth

maternal alcohol use 00> slowed growth, physically and psychologically

prenatal x-ray exposure –> intellectual disability, skull, spinal cord, and eye defects, cleft palate, limb deformities

107
Q

defn: reflex

A

a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input

108
Q

what are the the four main infant primitive reflexes?

A
  1. rooting reflex
  2. Moro reflex
  3. Babinski reflex
  4. grasping reflex
109
Q

defn: rooting reflex

A

the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek

relates to feeding

110
Q

defn: Moro reflex

A

infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying

111
Q

defn: Babinski reflex

A

the toes spread apart atuomatically when the sole of the foot is stimulatedd

112
Q

defn: grasping reflex

A

occurs when infants close their fingers around an object placed in their hand

113
Q

defn: gross vs. fine motor skills

A

GROSS = incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion (sitting, crawling, walking)

FINE = involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement (tracking motion, drawing, catching, waving)

114
Q

defN: stranger anxiety

A

a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals

115
Q

defn: separation anxiety

A

a fear of being separated from the parental figure

116
Q

defn: parallel play

A

children play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior

117
Q

defn: developmental milestones

A

several abilities and behaviors that are expected to emerge at particular times in a person’s development

118
Q

what are the general patterns of development of

gross motor skills
motor skills
social skills
language skills

A

GROSS MOTOR = head to toe order
MOTOR = center of the body skills prior to extremities
SOCIAL = parent to self to other oriented
LANGUAGE = becomes more complex and structured

119
Q

what is typical social development at
7 months
1 year
3 years
5 years
6-12
teenage

A

7 months: stranger anxiety
1 year: separation anxiety
3 years: assigned gender, gender-stereotyped play, full name
5: conformity to peers, romantic feelings
6 - 12: same gender friends
teenage: self-sufficient, desire for independence through rebelling, inter-gender friendships more common, sexual orientation and gender identity

Psych/Soc Correct Deck (12 decks)

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