Ch. 14 - Ecology Flashcards
____ – nonliving (temp, climate, light and water availability, topology)
o Sunlight – ____ zone in water= light penetrates; all aquatic photosynthesis
____ zone–only animal and other heterotrophs
o Oxygen – air is ~ 80% nitrogen, 20% oxygen
- ____ – all living things that directly or indirectly influence the life of the organism
\_\_\_\_ abiotic photic aphotic biotic
- ____: group of individuals of same species living in the same area.
population
- ____: group of populations living in the same area.
community
- ____: describes interrelationships between organisms in a community and their physical environment.
ecosystem
- ____: composed of all regions of earth that contain living things. (ex. Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, etc)
biosphere
- ____: type of place where organism usually lives; including other organisms as well as physical, chemical environment.
habitat
- ____: describes all biotic and abiotic resources in the environment used by an organism. When an organism is said to occupy a niche, certain resources are consumed or certain qualities of environment are changed in some way by presence.
niche
____: study of growth, abundance, and distribution of populations.
population ecology
Population Ecology
____: N, total number of individuals in population.
size
Population Ecology
2. ____: total number of individuals per area or volume occupied.
density
Population Ecology
3. ____: describes how individuals in a population are distributed; may be
clumped, uniform, or random.
dispersion
Population Ecology
- ____: description of the abundance of individuals of each age. 3 2 1 (%
male) 0 (% female) 1 2 3 with horizontal bars for each age group.
age structure
Population Ecology
5. Survivorship curves: how mortality of individuals in a species varies during their
lifetimes.
a. ____: most individuals survive to middle age and dies quicker after this
age (human).
b. ____: length of survivorship is random (invertebrates-hydra).
c. ____: most individuals die young, with few surviving to reproductive age and beyond (oysters).
type 1
type 2
type 3
Population Ecology
6. Population Growth
a. ____: maximum growth rate under ideal conditions (unlimited resources and no restrictions). The
following factors contribute to biotic potential of a species: age at reproductive maturity, clutch size (# offspring produced at each reproduction), frequency of reproduction, reproductive lifetime, survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity.
b. ____: maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by habitat.
c. Limiting factors: ____ (limiting effect becomes more intense as population density increases- competition, spread of disease, parasites, predation) and ____ (occur independently of density of population such as natural disasters or big temp changes).
- ____: r = (births – death)/N
____: ∆N/∆t = rN = births - deaths - ____: of growth is when the reproductive rate (r) is maximum (biotic potential).
biotic potential
carrying capacity (K)
density-dependent
density-independent
growth rate of population
change
intrinsic rate
Population Ecology
6. Population Growth
d. ____: occurs whenever reproductive rate (r) is greater than zero (J-shaped).
e. ____h: occurs when limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of habitat.
∆N = rN (𝐾−𝑁) ∆t 𝐾
- K is carrying capacity. When population size increase -> growth rate ____ and reach 0 when population size reach ____ -> S-shaped.
exponential growth
logistic growth
decreases
carrying capacity
Population Ecology
6. Population Growth
- ____: fluctuations in population size in response to varying effects of limiting factors. when population grows over ____, it may be limited (lower) than the initial K due to the ____ caused to the habitat -> lower new carrying capacity K or it may crash to ____
population cycle
carrying capacity
damage
extinction
Two growths above are associated with two kinds of life-history:
____ – members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant (at K) in size (ex. human population). Have a carrying capacity that population levels out at. Carrying capacity is a density dependent factor.
____ – rapid exponential population growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation, little postnatal care (ex. bacteria). Generally found in rapidly changing environments affected by density independent factors. Characterized by ____ (e.g. grasses, insects that quickly invade a habitat, reproduce, then die)
____ – enabled by: increase in food supply, reduction in disease (medicine), reduction in human wastes, habitat expansion (advancements now allow inhabitance of previously uninhabitable places)
____: amount of raw land necessary to sustain an individual’s lifestyle habits (consider eating, traveling, housing habits) ____ reflects the diversity of a community in regards to the total number of different species present
k-selected population r-selected population opportunistic species human population growth ecological footprint species richness
____: concerned with interaction of populations; such as ____ (different species).
community cology
interspecific competition
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
- ____: two species compete for exactly the same resources (or occupy the same niche), one is likely to be more successful (no two species can sustain ____ if they occupy the same niche).
competitive exclusion principle (Gauses’s principle)
coexistence
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
- ____: two species occupy same niche but pursue slightly different resources or securing their resources in different ways, individuals ____ competition and maximize success (multiple species-____ niches).
resource partitioining
minimize
slightly different
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
- ____: as a result of resource partitioning, certain traits allow for more success in obtaining resources in their partitions -> reduces ____ -> ____ of features (character displacement) such as different beak of birds on the same island. The mating calls of 2 species of frogs are different when they occupy the same
island. On separate islands, the mating calls are the same.
character displacement (niche shift)
competition
divergence
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
- ____: niche that an organism occupies in absence of competing species is its ____. When
competitors are present, one/both species may be able to coexist by occupying their ____, that part of their existence where ____ is absent (occupy areas of niche that don’t overlap so no competition for resources)
Example: One barnacle species can live on rocks that are exposed to full range of tides (fundamental). In natural environment, 2nd species of barnacle outcompetes the 1st, but only at lower tide levels where desiccation is minimal. The 1st species then only survive in its realized niche, the higher tide levels.
realized niche
fundamental niche
realized niches
niche overlap
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
- ____: another form of community interaction.
a. ____: kills and eats another animal.
b. ____: spends most of its life living on host, host usually doesn’t die until parasite complete one life cycle.
c. ____: an insect that lays its eggs on host (insect or spider). After eggs hatch, larvae obtain nourishment by
consuming host’s tissues. Host eventually dies, but not until larvae complete development and begin pupation.
d. ____: animal that eats plants. ____ are seeds eater (act like predators totally consume organism).
____ (animals that eat grasses) and ____ (eat leaves) and eat only part 0> weaken it in process.
predation true predator parasite parasitoid herbivore granivores grazers browsers
- ____ – intimate, often permanent association b/w two organisms; may or may not be beneficial; some may be ____ (one or both organisms cannot survive w/o the other)
symbiosis
obligatory
SYMBIOSIS
____ – one benefits, the other is unaffected
- Remora and shark – remora gets food shark discards
- Barnacle and Whale – barnacle gets wider feeding opportunities
commensalism (+/o)
SYMBIOSIS
____ – both organisms benefit
Tick bird and Rhinoceros – bird gets food (ticks) and rhino loses ticks
Lichen (fungus + algae) – algae produces food for itself and fungus via photosynth; fungus provided CO2 and nitrogenous wastes
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and Legumes – legumes provides nutrients for bacteria and bacteria fixes nitrogen
Protozoa and Termites – protozoa digests cellulose for termites, termites protect and provide food
Intestinal Bacteria and Humans – bacteria utilized food and provide vitamin K
mutualism (+/+)
SYMBIOSIS
____ – benefits at the expense of the host; bacteria and fungi; live with minimum expenditure of energy
Parasites can be ____ (cling to exterior of host) or ____ (live within the host)
Virus and Host cell – all viruses are parasites
Disease Bacteria and Animals – diphtheria is parasitic upon man; anthrax on sheep; tuberculosis on cow or man
Disease Fungi and Animals – ringworm is parasitic on man
Worms and Animals – tapeworm and man (less dangerous = more survival; better for parasite not to kill its host)
parasitism (+/-)
ectoparasites
endoparasites
____ – protists and fungi that decompose dead organic matter externally and absorb nutrients
saprophytism
____ consume dead animals directly (ex. Vulture, hyena, bacteria of decay)
scavengers
Intraspecific interactions between members of the same species are influenced by ____ and ____ (reproduction and protection from predators and weather) forces
disruptive (competition)
cohesive
Osmoregulation
a. ____ – live in hypoosmotic environment which causes excess intake of water; thus the fish ____ drink and excrete dilute urine
b. ____ – live in hyperosmotic environment; ____ drinking and excreting salt across their gills
c. ____ – secrete solid ____ crystals to conserve water
d. ____ – possess waxy cuticles on leaf surface and stomata and have stomata on the ____ leaf surfaces only; leaves shed in winter; desert
plants have extensive root systems, fleshy stems, spiny leaves, extra thick cuticles, and few stomata
freshwater fish seldom saltwater fish constantly arthropods uric acid plants lower
Thermoregulation
a. ____ – vast majority of plants and animals; body temp. is close to that of ____, so metabolism is radically
affected by ____.
b. ____ – make use of heat produced by respiration; physical adaptations like fat, hair, and feathers retard heat loss
(Ex: mammals and birds)
cold-blood (polklothermic)
surroundings
environmental temp
warm-blood (homeothermic)
____: evolution of one species in response to new adaptation that appear in another species.
coevolution
COEVOLUTION
- ____: toxic chemicals produced in plants that ____ would-be herbivores (tannins in
oaks/nicotine/ tobacco are toxic)
secondary compounds
discourage
COEVOLUTION
- ____: is any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings. Both prey and predator benefit from camouflage.
camouflage (cryptic coloration)
COEVOLUTION
- ____: conspicuous ____ or ____ of animals that warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad, poisonous, or are other wise to be avoided.
aposematic coloration (warning coloration)
pattern
coloration
COEVOLUTION
- ____: occurs when two or more species resemble one another in appearance. There are two kinds:
a. ____: occurs when several animals, all with some ____, share the same coloration -> effective with single pattern such [predator only has to learn one pattern is bad instead of lots of variants] as
yellow and black body markings (dangerous) from bees, yellow jackets, and wasps.
b. ____: occurs when animal ____ special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an
animal that does possess a ____.
mimicry mullerian mimicry special defense mechanism batesian mimicry without any defense
COEVOLUTION
- ____: of many kinds of flowers occur as result of Coevolution of finely-tuned traits between flowers + pollinators -red tubular flower coevolves with hummingbird attracted to red -> provides nectar to hummingbird in exchange for
____
pollination
pollen transfer
Coloration, camouflage, mimicry etc are ____ defenses. ____ defenses are hiding, fleeing, defending but can be costly in ____.
passive
active
energy
D. ____: change in composition of species over time.
It describes how one community is replaced by another gradually consisting of ____. As it progresses, diversity (# of species in community) and total biomass ____. A final successional stage of constant species composition (____), is attained (usually never-random occurs) -> unchanged until destroyed by catastrophic event (____). Succession has a factor of randomness that makes it hard to predict; ____ can also change a habitat:
ecological succession
different species increase climax community blowout resident species
- ____: may change from solid rock, to fertile soil, to sand/others (because rock erodes, plants+animals decomp)
substrate texture
____: may decrease due to decomposition of organic matter such as acidic leaves.
soil pH
____: ability of soil to retain water, changes as soil texture changes.
soil water potential
- ____: may change from full sunlight to shady to darkness as trees become established
light availability
- ____: increases with population growth, may be unsuitable to certain species.
crowding
- ____: plants and animals that are first to colonize a newly exposed habitat (usually opportunistic, r-selected species); can tolerate harsh conditions. (ex. Lichens and mosses)
- As soil, water, light change, ____ will be replaced by stable ____ species (live longer, slow succession) and reach climax where it remains for hundreds of years.
pioneer species
r-selected
k-selected
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
- ____: occurs on substrates that ____ supported living things (volcanic islands, lava flows). Essential and dominant characteristic of primary succession is ____.
primary succession
never previously
soil building
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
- ____: begins in habitats where communities were entirely/partially ____ by damaging event;
begins on substrate that ____ soil (may contain native seed bank).
secondary succession
destroyed
already bear
- A community stage is identified by a ____; Ex: grass in grassland community
dominant species
- Ecological succession in a Pond
1. ____: Plants such as algae, pondweed. Animals such as protozoa, insects, fish
2. ____: Reeds, cattails, water lilies
3. ____: grass, herbs, shrubs, willow trees. Frogs, snakes
4. ____: climax tree – perhaps pine or oak
pond
shallow water-pond fills in
moist land
woodland
____ – have trophic levels that categorize plants/animals based on their main ____
ecosystems
energy source
ECOSYSTEMS
- ____: autotrophs that convert sun energy into ____ energy; plants, photosynthetic protists,
cyanobacteria, and chemosynthetic bacteria.
primary producers
chemical
ECOSYSTEMS
- ____: herbivores (long digestive tract w/ greater surface area and time for more ____; symbiotic
bacteria in digestive tract break down the cellulose which the herbivore itself cannot), eat ____.
primary consumers
digestion
primary producers
ECOSYSTEMS
- ____: primary carnivores, eat ____.
secondary consumers
primary producers
ECOSYSTEMS
- ____: 2nd carnivores, eat ____.
tertiary consumers
2nd consumers
ECOSYSTEMS
- ____: consumers that obtain energy by consuming dead plants/animals (____). smallest ones are ____ (fungi
and bacteria). Also includes nematodes, earthworms, insects, + ____ (vultures, jackals, crab), saprophytes
detritivores
detritus
decomposers
scavengers
- Ecological pyramids: show relationships between ____.
trophic levels
- Ecological efficiency: describes the proportion of energy represented at one trophic level that is ____ to the next.
On average, an efficiency of about ____ is transferred to the next. 90% is for metabolism and to ____ when they die.
transferred
10%
detritivores
- ____ : linear flow chart of who’s eaten by whom (grass zebra lion vulture).
food chain
- Food web: is an expanded, more complete version of ____ (greater number of pathways in a community food web, the more ____ the community is)
food chain
stable
Energy/biomass/quantity is greatest at ____ level, lowest at ____ level. Tertiary is ____ + ____ to population fluctuations of lower levels
primary producer
tertiary consumer
least stable
most sensitive
____ – flow of essential elements: environment -> living things -> environment
biogeochemical cycles
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- ____ (water cycle)
a. ____: oceans, air, groundwater, glaciers.
b. ____: plants absorb water from soil; animals drink and eat other organisms.
c. ____: plants transpire; animals and plants decompose.
hydrologic cycle
reservoir
assimilation
release
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- ____: required for building organic materials. Basis for this is photosynthesis + respiration
a. Reservoirs: atmosphere (CO2), ____, peat, cellulose.
b. Assimilation: plant uses CO2 in ____, animals consume plants (this is ____ – reduced from its inorganic form of CO2 to organic compounds) (just like in N-fixing: N2 is relatively inert, N-fixing frees it up for use)
c. Release: release CO2 through respiration and ____ + when organic material is burned
carbon cycle fossil fuels (coal, oil) photosynthesis carbon fixing decomposition
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- N CYCLE: required for amino acid and nucleic acids. (this cycle is important, memorize this)
a. Reservoirs: atmosphere (____), soil (____
)
b. Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrogen as either ____ or ____., animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants/animals
1. Nitrogen fixation: ____ (N2 -> NH4+); ____ (N2 -> NO3-)
2. Nitrification: NH4+ -> NO2- and NO2- -> NO3- by ____.
c. Release: denitrifying bacteria (convert NO3 -> N2; ____), detrivorous bacteria convert organic
compounds back to NH4+ (____), animals excrete NH4, urea, or uric acid, decay (nitrogen in the form of NH3 is released from dead tissues)
nitrogen cycle
N2
NH4 Nh3 NO2 NO3
NO3- NH4+ nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil lighting + UV nitrifying bacteria
dentrification
ammonification
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- Phosphorus cycle: required for manufacturing of ____ and all nucleic acids. Cycles for other minerals (Ca, Mg) are similar to ____.
a. Reservoirs: rocks and ocean sediments (____ transfers P to water and soil)
b. Assimilation: plants absorb inorganic PO43- (phosphate) from ____; animals obtain organic phosphorus when they eat.
c. Release: plants and animals release phosphorous when they ____, and animals excrete in ____
ATP phos cycle eroson soil decompose waste products
G. ____ - regions with common environmental characteristics (Know this info)
biomes
BIOMES
- ____: high (but ____) temperature and humidity, heavy rainfall, (tall trees with branch at tops -> little
____ to enter). Most ____ biome.
- ____ are plants that grow commensally on other plants (like vines)
tropical rain forest stable light diverse epiphytes
BIOMES
- Savannas: grasslands with ____ trees. similar to tropics in that they have high temperature, but they get ____ rainfall
scatterred
very little
BIOMES
- Temperate grasslands: receive less ____ (+ uneven seasonal occurrence of ____) and are subject to lower temperatures than ____ (e.g. north American prairie)
water
rainfall
savannas
BIOMES
- Temperate deciduous forests: warm ____, cold winters, and moderate ____. Deciduous trees shed leaves during ____. ____ is rich due to leaf shed. ____: plants+animals live on ground, low branches, and treetops. ____ mammals hibernate through cold winter.
summers precipitation winter soil vertical stratification principal
BIOMES
Temperate coniferous: cold ____ forests; vegetation has evolved adaptations to ____ water (needle leaves)
dry
conserve
BIOMES
- Deserts: hot and dry; most ____ temp fluctuations (hot day, cold night); growth of annual plants is limited to short period following rare rain, plants and animals adapt to conserve as much ____ as possible (urinate infrequently, cacti spines, etc)
extreme
water
BIOMES
- Taigas: coniferous forests (and trees with needles for leaves). ____ cold winters and precipitation in form of heavy
snow. Largest ____ biome.
very long
terrestrial
BIOMES
7. Tundras: cold winters (ground freezes), \_\_\_\_ thaws during summer -> support \_\_\_\_ vegetation (grasses). but deeper soil (\_\_\_\_) remains permanently frozen. Very little rainfall that can’t penetrate frozen ground.
____: terrestrial biome along California coastline characterized by wet winters, dry summers, scattered vegetation
____: frozen w/ no vegetation or terrestrial animals
top layer minimal permafrost chaparral polar region
Aquatic Biomes
- ____: ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers. Hypotonic to organisms, affected by climate/weather variations.
fresh water biomes
Aquatic Biomes
- Marine biomes: the largest biome covering ____ of world surface. Provides most of earth’s ____. Includes ____ (where oceans and river meet), ____ (where ocean meet land), ____ (shallow oceans bordering continents), coral reefs, and ____ (deep). Have a relatively constant temperature (water’s high
heat capacity + volume), amount of nutrient materials and dissolved salts. Divided into regions classified by amount of ____ received, distance from ____, depth, open water vs ocean bottom.
3/4 food and oxygen estuaries intertidal zones continental shelves/littoral zone pelagic ocean sunglight shore
Two major divisions to the marine biome:
____ is lowest layer of a body of water, including sediment surface and sub-surface layers. In ocean water (deep) light doesn’t ____; most organisms are ____ and ____.
Second major zone is the ____, the water that is neither close to shore nor the very bottom. It is broken down from top to bottom in layers. ____ (surface layer of water, only ____ since enough light for penetration, nearly all ____ of ocean occurs here) -> (all zones from here on out are aphotic) ____ (not enough light for photosynthesis, minimal oxygen) -> ____ (pitch black, no plant life, most organisms here consume detritus) -> ____ (cold, high temp, most species have no eyes due to lack of light) -> ____ (most life here exists in hydrothermal vents).
benthic zone
penetrate
scavengers
detritivores
pelagic epiplagic photic zone primary production mesoplagic bathypelagic abyssopelagic hadopelagic
Human Impact on Biosphere
- Global climate change: burning of fossil fuels and forests increase CO2 in atmosphere -> more heat trapped (____; normally a good thing for maintaining heat on Earth but this is overkill) -> global temp rises -> raise sea level by melting ice and decrease ____ (affecting weather patterns).
greenhouse effect
agriculture output
Human Impact on Biosphere
- Ozone depletion: O2 + UV in atmosphere -> O3 is ozone which absorbs ____, preventing it from reaching surface of earth (UV damages DNA). ____ enter upper atmosphere and break down O3.
UV radiation
CFCS (chlorofluorocarbons)
Human Impact on Biosphere
- Acid rain: burning of ____ (e.g. coal) releases into air ____ and ____. When they react with water vapor ->
____ and nitric acid (HNO3) -> kills plants and animals when they rain to earth.
fossil fuels
SO2
NO2
sulfuric acid (SO2)
Human Impact on Biosphere
- ____: overgrazing of grasslands that border deserts transform the grasslands into deserts -> agricultural
output decreases, or habitat available to native species are lost.
desertification
Human Impact on Biosphere
- Deforestation: clear-cutting of forests causes ____, flooding, and changes in weather patterns.
erosion
Human Impact on Biosphere
- Pollution: air, water, and land pollution contaminate materials essential to life; many remain in environment for decades. ____ is the process of nutrient enrichment in lakes and subsequent increase in biomass (lakes polluted with fertilizer runoff -> abundant nutrients (especially phosphates) stim ____ (massive algae/phytoplankton growth) which respire and deplete oxygen + breakdown and detrivous bacteria deplete even more oxygen -> many animals die of ____ -> lakes fills with carcasses of dead animals/plants). Note: phytoplankton does photosynthesis, but at night they ____ oxygen when they respire + the detrivores continue to multiply as stuff dies
eutrophication
algal blooms
oxygen starvation
reduce
- ____: as one organism eats another, toxin (e.g. pesticide) becomes more concentrated at higher trophic level.
- Toxins: antibiotics, hormones, carcinogens, ____ (cause birth defects) which get into food chain cause biomag
biological magnification
tetratogens
- ____ in species diversity: result of human activities.
reduction
- Introduction of new species: killer honeybee introduced; stung + killed people. Zebra mussel outcompeted____
residents
Pesticides vs biological control: pesticides effective but dangerous to humans; biological control alternatives safer: ____, natural enemies, ____, insect birth control.
crop rotation
natural plant toxins
____ – areas of dry land that form on the leeward side (downwind) of a high mountain. Rain cloud approaches mountain range -> rise in elevation -> surrounding air becomes cooler -> due point eventually reached -> precipitation occurs as cloud gains precipitation, continues to rain towards peak -> cloud begins to descend leeway side of mountain ->decrease in elevation -> air temperature ____ –> precipitation ____ -> rain shadow is dry (____)
rain shadows
increases
decreases
desert biome
