Ch. 11 - Animal Forms and Function (A-E) Flashcards
Thermoregulation –
- Ectotherms – obtain body heat from ____ (aka poikilotherms/cold-blooded)
- – Invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, fish
- Endotherms – generate their own ____ (aka homeotherms/warm-blooded)
- Regulatory mechanisms
— Evaporation – body heat is removed as liquid evaporates (____)
— Metabolism – muscle contraction and other metabolic activities generate heat
— Surface Area – Vasodilation or vasoconstriction of extremity vessels results in heat retention or removal (blood
flow to ears reduce body temp, countercurrent exchange keeps central parts of body warm)
____
environment
body heat
endergonic
Invertebrate Respiration:
Cnidaria: Protozoa and Hydra
o Direct with ____: large surface areas and every cell is either exposed to environment or close to it -> ____ of gases directly
with outside environment (e.g. flatworms). Small animals only.
environment
simple diffusion
Invertebrate Respiration:
Annelids:
o ____ secreted by earthworm provides moist surface for gaseous exchange by ____
o Circulatory system bring ____ to cells and waste products (CO2) back to skin for excretion
mucus
diffusion
O2
Invertebrate Respiration:
Arthropods (80% of all living species – insects, spiders, crustaceans (crabs), etc…
o Grasshopper
— Series of chitin-lined respiratory tubules called ____ open to surface in openings called ____ through with O2 enters, CO2 exits. No oxygen carrier is needed due to ____ and removal of respiratory gases between air and body cells; diffusion across moistened tracheal endings.
o Spider
— ____: stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in internal chamber
trachae
spiracles
direct distribution
book lungs
Invertebrate Respiration:
Fish
o Water enters mouth, passes over ____ (evaginated structures, create large ____, take O2 and deposit CO; can be external/unprotected or
internal/protected), exits through ____ (gill cover). ____ between opposing movements of water and underlying
gills
SA
operculum
countercurrent exchange
Plant Respiration
- Photosynthesis only takes place during the day.
o Photosynthesis produces glucose and gives off oxygen
o While respiration requires oxygen to degrade glucose
- Plants undergo aerobic respiration similar to animals
o Glucose -> 2ATP + 2 pyruvic acid
o Gases diffuse into air space by entering and leaving through ____ of leaves or ____ in woody stems
o Anaerobic respiration takes place in simple plants when molecular oxygen is lacking
stomata
lenticels
Gas exchange in human: CO2 is transported as HCO3- in the plasma (liquid portion of blood), catalyzed by ____ (____ ↔ ____ ↔ H+ + HCO3-) located in the RBC. Some CO2 mixes direct w/ plasma as gas, or binds with hemoglobin in RBCs
carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
Alveoli – where gas exchange between the circulatory system and the lungs occurs; ____ reduces the surface tension (prevents H2O from collapsing alveoli). There are two types of epithelial cells in human alveoli: type 1 (____) and type 2 (____)
surfactant
structural support
produce surfactant
Nose (filter, moisten, warms incoming air – mucus secreted by goblet cells traps large dust particles here), pharynx (____ – passageway for food and air; dust/mucus swept back here by ____ for disposal via spitting or swallowing), larynx (____- if ____ enters, cough reflex activates)
throat
cilia
voice box
non-gas
Trachea (____ covers the trachea during swallowing) – ringed cartilage (____) covered by ciliated mucus cells
epiglottis
C-shaped
Bronchi, Bronchioles: ____ bronchi, which enter the lungs and branch into narrower ____
Alveoli: Each bronchiole branches ends in these small sacs, which are surrounded by ____
two
bronchioles
blood-carrying capillaries
Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood: Gas exchange across moist, sac membranes of ____. O2 diffuses through alveolar wall, through pulmonary capillary wall, into blood, and into red blood cells. (CO2 is ____)
alveoli
opposite
Bulk flow of O2: O2 transported through body within ____ containing red blood cells (RBCs)
Diffusion between blood and cells: Oxygen diffuses out of RBCs, across blood capillary walls, into ____, and across cell membranes (CO2 opposite)
hemoglobin
interstitial fluid
Bulk flow of CO2: CO2 mainly transported as ____ ions in plasma, liquid portion of blood. Produced by ____ in RBCs. CO2
can also directly mix with ____ (as CO2 gas), or bind ____ inside RBCs
HCO3-
carbonic anhydrase
plasma
hemoglobin
Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs:
a. Inhalation – ____ (under lungs) and ____ (between ribs) contract/ flattens; increase in volume / decrease in ____ in lungs -> bulk flow of air into lungs.
b. Exhalation – ____ process; decrease in lung volume/ increase in air pressure -> air rushes out; diaphragm relaxes and ____
diaphragm
intercostal muscles
pressure
passive
expands
Bohr effect – hemoglobin O2 ____ decreases under conditions of low pH (high CO2 & [H+]) -> oxygen loads released by hemoglobin
Decrease in ____ or ____ in pH will result in hemoglobin binding more O2
Result of: CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -. H+ + HCO3-
binding affinity
CO2
increase
____ - Basically explains CO2’s dissociation curve. ↑ CO2 pressure = ↑ CO2 content in blood. But when hemoglobin is saturated by oxygen, its capacity to hold CO2
is ____. Essentially: we pick up CO2 in the tissues where it’s been generated, and get rid of it at the lungs and grab oxygen instead. Hemoglobin w/out oxygen acts as
____ by accepting H+ -> this reduced hemoglobin has higher capacity to form ____ rather than the oxygen carrying kind, explaining how the
Haldane effect occurs.
haldane effect
reduced
blood buffer
carbamino hemoglobin
*Oxygen diffuses from ____ into ____, CO2 diffuses from ____ into ____
alveolar air
blood
blood
lungs
Human respiration controlled by ____ – signals the diaphragm to ____
- When ppCO2 increases, medulla stimulates ____ in rate of ventilation
- The diaphragm is a ____ muscle innervated by the ____. It is also the only organ which only and all ____ have, and
without which no mammals can live.
medulla oblongata
contract
increases
skeletal
phrenic nerve
mammals
Critical note: the majority of CO2 in the blood is transported in the form of the ____ (HCO3-). To a lesser extent, it can be transported bound to ____, and to an even lesser extent simply dissolved in the ____ (CO2 is ____ in blood than O2)
bicarbonate ion
hemoglobin/plasma proteins
plasma
significantly more
Bigger picture: tissues are high CO2 and high H+, and they’re not getting a lot of oxygen, we want to oxygenate them. So Hb (Hemoglobin) once near the tissues is exposed to the higher CO2/H+, and ____ to ____ form: this ____ form now releases its O2 to the tissues, and will also more preferably bind ____
changes structure
reduced
reduced
CO2
At the lungs, the CO2 wants out and is released. The H+ cxn is also lower due to bicarbonate being converted back into CO2 form for release. Now hemoglobin will change to its ____ that preferably binds ____, which it holds more tightly under these conditions.
non-reduced state
oxygen
Control of respiration: central chemoreceptors in the ____ monitors ____ in the cerebrospinal fluid (though not directly) and peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid arties and aorta monitor aterial ____, ____, and ____. In an active body, there is increased CO2 production; it enters plasma is converted to HCO3- and H+, the blood pH drops -> respiratory rate ____. Oxygen and pH mainly monitored by the ____
medulla [H+] [H+] [CO2] [O2] increases peripheral chemoreceptors
As O2 pressure increases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin ____
- This is ideal – in the lungs we are O2 rich and want to hang on to it, but in the tissues we are O2 poor (lower O2 pressure) so the hemoglobin will release the O2 to the tissues
increases
O2 saturation of hemoglobin also depends on CO2 pressure, pH, temp of blood
- Oxygen dissociation curve shows the percentage of hemoglobin bound w/ O2 at various ____ of O2
- Curve is shifted right (i.e. oxygen is released easier, low O2 affinity) by an increase of CO2 pressure, H+ cxn, or temp (and vice versa) (CADET face Right! – CO2, Acid, 2,3-DPG, Exercise, and Temperature)
- Bohr effect – hemoglobin O2 binding affinity decreases under conditions of ____ (high CO2 & [H+]) -> oxygen loads ____ by
hemoglobin because both O2 and H+ compete for binding at hemoglobin molecule - 2,3-DPG cxn increase also shifts ____: it’s produced in presence of ____ peripheral tissue O2 capacity
partial pressures low pH released right diminished
____ comes from inadequate ventilation: we don’t clear enough CO2 and it builds up, so via rxn above more H+ ends up getting formed -> pH ____ in tissues.
____ comes from breathing too rapidly: we are losing CO2 too quickly, via rxn above, H+ and HCO3- start combining to form more CO2, pH ____.
Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are not due to breathing issues – you may alter breathing to compensate, but the cause is not ____.
respiratory acidosis
drops
respiratory alkalosis
rises
Chloride shift: carbonic anhydrase is in RBC’s so at the tissues to balance bicarbonate ions diffusing out of cells (because CO2 enters RBC, carbonic anhydrase converts, bicarbonate diffuses out to plasma) (vice versa at lungs), Cl- enters
- CO2 carried in blood in three forms: in ____, as ____, and in ____ (combined w/ hemoglobin and other proteins). Majority carried as bicarbonate ion form.
physical solution
bicarbonate ion
carbamino compounds
Myoglobin of muscle has ____ curve (structure doesn’t do ____ cooperative binding, single subunit) saturates quickly and releases in very low oxygen “____” situations
hyperbolic
allosteric
emergency muscle
o Fetal hemoglobin curve is shifted ____ of adult – has higher ____ to grab O2 from maternal blood
left
binding affinity
Note: carbon monoxide has a ____hemoglobin than oxygen does! Have to administer pure O2 to ____ it once bound.
200x greater affinity
displace
Avian respiration is drastically ____ than human respiration. Due to the unique anatomy of birds, respiration is both ____ and ____. ____ allow birds to exchange gas during both inhalation and exhalation – oxygen rich incoming air is first stored in ____ before entering lungs for exhalation, so it is not mixed with the ____ air.
different continuous unidirectional air sacs air sacs deoxygenated exhaled
In mammalian respiration there is ____ - we breathe in and out through the same tubing, inhibiting ____ during exhalation. Deoxygenated air is mixed with some ____ during inhalation, some of it is re-breathed. Much ____ than birds.
tidal breathing
gas exchange
fresh air
less efficient
CIRC. SYSTEM
Protozoans (unicellular animal-like [due to movement] protists)- movement of gas through ____ within cell
simple diffusion
CIRC SYSTEM
Cnidarians – body walls ____ cells thick, therefore all cells in ____ with either internal or external environment. Ex- hydra
2
direct contact
CIRC SYSTEM
Arthropods- most insects and molluscs
o ____- pump blood into internal cavity called ____ (cavities called ____), which bathe tissues in oxygen and nutrient containing fluid (____). This fluid returns to pumping mechanism (____) through holes called ____.
open circulatory system hemocoel sinuses hemolymph heart ostia
CIRC SYSTEM
Annelids- earthworm
o ____- blood is confined to vessels.
- Also seen in certain ____ (octopus and squid) and ____
- Away from heart: aorta -> arteries -> ____ -> capillaries
- Back to heart: capillaries -> ____ -> veins
closed circulatory system mollusks vertebrates arterioles venules
CIRC SYSTEM
Note: human and bird hearts have ____ , reptiles+amphibians ____, fish ____ (but crocs+gators have ____ chambers)
4 chambers
3
2
4
CIRC SYSTEM
Human heart – (note: the ____ are the upper chambers of the heart) (animation of circuit flow)

o Right atrium – ____ blood enters via ____ and ____
o Right ventricle – blood is squeezed through right ____ into right ventricle which contracts and
pumps blood into ____ through the ____.
- When the ventricle contracts, AV valve closes to prevent ____
- When ventricle relaxes, ____ prevents backflow from pulmonary artery back into ventricles
atrium
deoxygenated
superior
inferior vena cava
AV/tricuspid valve
pulmonary artery
pulmonary semilunar valve
backflow
semilunar valve
CIRC SYSTEM
CONTINUING HUMAN HEART
Pulmonary circuit: blood pathway from ____ of heart to ____ to ____ of heart
- Blood flows from pulmonary artery -> ____ -> capillaries of the lungs -> collects in ____ -> ____
-> pulmonary veins -> left ____
o ____ is the circulation pathway through the body between left and right sides of heart
o Left atrium – after lungs the ____ blood enters left atrium via ____
right side
lungs
left side
arterioles
venules
veins
atrium
systemic circulation
oxygenated
pulmonary veins
CIRC SYSTEM
CONTINUING HUMAN HEART
Left ventricle – after going through left ____(aka mitral or bicuspid), blood from left ventricle goes to ____
through the ____ into rest of body:
- Aorta -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> tissues get what they want -> venules -> veins -> ____ -> cycle repeats
- As above: ____ prevents backlow into atrium, ____ prevents it into ventricle
o So: ____ and ____prevent backflow
AV valve
aorta
aortic semilunar valve
superior and inferior vena cava
AV valves
aortic semilunar valve
right/left AV
pulmonary/aortic SL
CIRC SYSTEM
Cardiac Cycle – regulated (in terms of rate)by autorhythmic cells of the autonomic NS, but contractions are intiated
____ of the autonomic NS. Instead the heart contracts automatically:
independently
CIRC SYSTEM
CARDIAC CYCLE
SA (sinoatrial) node, or ____ (located in upper wall of right ____) is a group of specialized cardiac muscle
cells that initiates by contracting ____ atria and sending delayed impulse to stimulate ____.
- Spreads contraction to surrounding cardiac muscles via ____ synapses made from ____
- Pace of SA node is ____ than normal heartbeat but ____ innervates SA node
(also increases digestive activity of intestines); ____ contractions
pacemaker
atrium
both
AV (atrioventricular) node
electrical
gap junctions
faster
parasympathetic vagus nerve
slows
CIRC SYSTEM
CARDIAC CYCLE
o AV node – located in lower wall of the right ____; sends impulse through ____ ->
passes between both ventricles -> branches into ventricles via the ____ which results in ____
atrium/interatrial septa
bundle of His
purkinje fibers
contraction
