Ch. 12

Question 1

gender

Answer 1

characteristics of people as males and females

-complex relationship between:
body: our body, experience of our body, how society genders bodies, and how others interact w/ others based on bodies

-identity: deeply held, internal self as male, female, a blend, or neither; who we know ourselves to be
-internal experience and naming of gender
–emerges before 2 yrs.

-expression: how we present gender in the world, how society perceives, interacts w/, and shapes gender
–roles and norms

Question 2

cisgender

Answer 2

gender identity constant w/ sex assigned to them at birth

Question 3

transgender

Answer 3

gender identity doesn’t match sex assigned at birth

Question 4

non-binary

Answer 4

gender identity that isn’t strictly male or female

Question 5

agender

Answer 5

doesn’t identify with any gender

Question 6

gender fluid

Answer 6

dynamic mix of male and female

Question 7

androgynous

Answer 7

elements of masculinity and femininity

Question 8

feminine or masculine-of-center

Answer 8

range of terms of gender identity and presentation for people who are present, understand themselves, and/or relate to others in a more feminine/masculine way

-but don’t necessarily identify as women or men

Question 9

gender roles

Answer 9

expectations that prescribe how fences or males should think, act and feel

Question 10

gender typing

Answer 10

acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine role

-2-6 yrs.: stereotyped play
-7-10 yrs.: attribute qualities to men and women, associate occupations and subjects w/ gender, play with others of gender

-11-13 yrs.: self-conscious about phys. changes and pressure to conform
–intolerance of cross-gender mannerisms and behaviors
–concerned about dating potential

-14-17 yrs.: mix w/ other genders, become more flexible about stereotypes
–become preoccupied w/ future careers and appearance
–want to learn gender-based expectations for how to behave in romantic situations

Question 11

2 hormone classes w/ greatest influence on gender

Answer 11

1) estrogens
2) androgens

Question 12

estrogens

Answer 12

primarily influence development of female phys. sex characteristics and regulate menstural cycle
–mainly produced in ovaries

(i.e., estradiol)

Question 13

androgens

Answer 13

promote development of male genitals, especially testosterone

-made by adrenal glands in males and females and by testes in males

Question 14

congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

Answer 14

adrenal glands enlarge -> high androgen lvls.

-found to prefer toys and activities stereotypically preferred in boys and stronger cross-gender identity

-higher aggression

Question 15

androgen-insensitive males

Answer 15

-no androgen cells, bodies look female, develop female identity, sexually attracted to males

Question 16

pelvic field defect

Answer 16

girls generally have vagina but no clitoris and are raised as females

-boys have normal testosterone amounts prenatal but have been castrated after being born and raised as females

Question 17

evolutionary psychology’s gender view

Answer 17

adaptation during evolution made psych. diff. between males and females

-diff. roles in reproduction -> diff. pressure in primeval enviro.

-multiple sexual liaisons -> improves likelihood that males will pass genes
–natural selection favored males who adopted short-term mating

-males evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking

-females’ contributions to gene pool were enhanced by securing resources for offspring
–promoted by getting long-term mates who support a family
–natural selection favored females who devote effort to parenting and chose mates who provide offspring w/ resources and protection

-females made preferences for successful, ambitious men who provide resources

Question 18

Alice Eagly’s social role theory

Answer 18

gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men

-women have less power and status and control fewer resources
–perform more domestic work, spend fewer hours in paid employment, receive lower pay, and are more thinly represented in highest lvls. of organizations

–show more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men

Question 19

social cognitive theory of gender

Answer 19

gender development occurs through observation, imitation, and rewards and punishments experienced for gender-(in)appropriate behavior

-emphasizes importance of social contexts
–parenting, peer relations, schools, and media

Question 20

parental influences

Answer 20

rewards and punishments

-socialization strategies (Phillis Bronstein (2006)
–mothers tend to be more involved, socialize daughters to be more obedient, place restrictions on daughters’ autonomy

–fathers tend to be less involved, more attention to and engage in more activities w/ sons,

Question 21

peer influences

Answer 21

reward and punish gender behavior
-sex-appropriate vs. inappropriate
-more acceptable for girls to act like boys, than boys to act like girls (tomboy v. sissy)

-childhood friendships tend to be gendered, preference of interacting in same-gender dyads is more pronounced for girls than boys

-adolescence friendships are more mixed

Question 22

school influence

Answer 22

values, gender of teachers, disability diagnoses,

-punishments, “problematic” behavior, self-esteem, grades

Question 23

indications of classroom bias against boys

Answer 23

compliance, following rules and being neat are valued and reinforced
-usually characterize girls

-majority of elementary school teachers are female
–make it more difficult for boys than girls to identify with teachers and model behavior

-more likely to have learning disability, ADHD, and drop out

-more likely to be criticized

-personnel ignore that boys are having academic problems, esp. in language arts

-stereotype behavior as problematic

Question 24

indications of classroom bias against girls

Answer 24

-girls are more compliant, boys are more rambunctious

-boys remand more attention, girls are more likely to wait their turn
–diminished assertiveness

-teachers spend more time watching and interacting w/ boys

-girls work and play quietly on their own, boys get more instruction than girls and help and get more time to answer a question and hints and tries

-boys are more likely to get lower grades and be grade repeaters
–girls are less likely to believe they’ll be successful in college work

-girls’ self-esteem is lower, boys describe more career options

Question 25

single-gender edu.

Answer 25

benefits: eliminates distraction of other sex and reduces sexual harassment

drawbacks: misguided, misconstrued, and unsupported by valid sci. evidence
-reduction of boys and girls to work together in a supervised, purposeful enviro.

Question 26

media influences

Answer 26

men seen as more powerful, women as sexual objects and subordinate to men

-body image
–sexualization, masculinity

Question 27

Target and gender

Answer 27

2015: Target stopped labeling toys and bedding as being “boys”
-earned praise and backlash from conservative parents

-misunderstanding about what “gender neutral” means
–organizing products according to interest or theme, not gender

2016: gender-neutral bathrooms
-praise and backlash

2017: gender-neutral clothing for kids
-praise and backlash

Question 28

mechanisms by which gender develops

Answer 28

observation, imitation, rewards, punishment

Question 29

criticisms of social cognitive theory

Answer 29

pays little attention to child’s mind and understanding by depicting child as passively acquiring gender roles

Question 30

gender schema theory

Answer 30

gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what’s gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture

Question 31

schema

Answer 31

cognitive structure, network of associations that guide a person’s perceptions

Question 32

gender schemas

Answer 32

organizes world in terms of female and male

Question 33

gender stereotypes

Answer 33

impressions and beliefs about females and males

-men: powerful, make good mechanics, good w/ numbers, not emotional

-women: weak, good nurses, good w/ words, emotional

-present at 2 yrs., increases at 4 yrs.

Question 34

instrumental characteristics

Answer 34

independent, aggressive, power oriented, breadwinner, enduring

-deal competently w/ world and wield authority

Question 35

expressive characteristics

Answer 35

warm, sensitive, nurturing caregiver, childlike, suitable for someone dependent upon and subordinate to others

-affiliative, less esteemed, more helpful in times of stressed

Question 36

phys. differences

Answer 36

women:
-have 2x body fat of men on breasts and hips
-longer life expectancy
-less likely to develop physical or mental disorders
-more resistant to infection
-more elastic blood vessels
-brains are 10% smaller

males:
-fat is more likely to go to abdomen
-10% taller than females
-high levels of stress hormones -> faster clotting and higher blood pressure

Question 37

cognitive and socioemotional similarities and diff.

Answer 37

males:
-scored higher than females in aggression, masculinity, spatial rotation ability, attention to phys. attractiveness in mate selection, confidence in phys. abilities, and performance in same-sex groups

-predominate in academic bottom half of high school classes

femalesL
-scored higher in reactions to painful stimuli, fear, attachment to peers, and interest in people rather than things
-outperform males in reading and writing, show greater academic interest and achievement

Question 38

aggression

Answer 38

biological factors
-heredity and hormones

-environmental factors
–cultural expectations, adult and peer models, social agents that reward aggression in boys and punish aggression in girls

Question 39

rapport talk

Answer 39

language of conversation and way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships

-girls enjoy rapport talk and conversation that’s relationship oriented more than boys do

Question 40

report talk

Answer 40

talk that gives info., public speaking is example, men hold center stage w/ verbal peformance like storytelling, joking, and lecturing w/ info.

Question 41

gender difference in play

Answer 41

boys:
-big groups that’re hierarchically structured, have winner who tells others what to do and how
-winners and losers are subject of arguments
-boast of skill and agree who’s best at what

girls
-play in small groups or pairs, intimate, turn-taking, sit and talk w/ each other

Question 42

gender difference in self-disclosure and negotiation

Answer 42

girls
-more likely to use affiliative strategies like making requests and indirect suggestions
-people oriented

boys
-more likely to make negative comments in response to others’ disclosure
-thing oriented

Question 43

gender difference in emotional regulation

Answer 43

girls
-express more emotion, better at decoding emotion, smile more, cry more, happier
-more prosocial

boys
-experience and express more anger

Question 44

meta-analysis

Answer 44

statistical analysis that combines results of different studies

Question 45

androgyny

Answer 45

presence of masculine and feminine traits

Question 46

gender-role transcendence

Answer 46

view that when an individual’s competence is at an issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny