CH 10- CONDITIONS OF PRACTICE Flashcards
verbal information
teaches the learner about the skill, explaining the mechanical principles underlying the skill
-detailed knowledge could be hindering to learning + sometimes no awareness of learning could be more effective
learning without knowledge- experiments that show some knowledge is helpful
-Judd (1908): throwing darts to targets under water
-Hendrickson + Shroeder (1941): shooting an air gun under water
learning without knowedlge- experiments that show all knowledge is not necessary
-Polani (1958): bicycle balance
-Wulf + Weigelt (1997): complex ski-simulator tasks (slalom)
Wulf + Weigelt, 1997
complex ski-simulator tasks (slalom)
-involved bowed rails in a platform on wheels with elastic rubber belts + the subjects were simulating slalom skiing
-goal was to make oscillatory movements with force against the platform
-1 group was given efficient pattern information ahead of time; other group wasn’t given any information ahead of time + had to do trial/error on their own
-the group with advance information performed less effectively + made less progress than group without prior knowledge, due to TMI
implicit learning
learning without awareness
-implicit learning can be better than explicit; information/instructions intended to help learning motor skills isn’t always effective + can be detrimental to learning process
focus of attention
-instructed external focus on intended movement effects is vital for optimal learning
-aka, we want to know how we will move overall
external focus leads to …
greater automaticity + generally more effective motor coordination + movement outcomes
-aka, paying attention to something outside the body is better than paying attention to something inside
is internal or external focus better
-external focus > internal focus; external focus usually has best performance
-external focus is PERMANENT in learning, + doesn’t just affect performance which is temporary; external focus impacts learning, NOT just performance
effects of attentional focus instructions
-within-participant designs have compared internal, external, + control conditions for focus
-benefits gained during practice persist, even when external focus isn’t maintained
study done on attentional focus instructions
-RMSE: root mean square error (aka, how many mistakes were made); on the y-axis
-in this study, there was a supra-postural task during a balanced practice setup where subjects were standing in a balancing task + holding an object in their hands
-subjects were told either to focus on hand (internal) or on an object they were holding (external); another group wasn’t told anything
-results were consistent in beginning, but after practice, we can see that external focus group produced fewest errors
-during retention + transfer set ups, external focus was STILL the best
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distance effects
-motor skills may have more than 1 movement effects, resulting in a choice of what to focus on (ex: a player can focus on the part of the ball to strike, trajectory of the ball, or hitting a target)
-for this, consider the distance of movement effect from the body; more distal external focal points are more effective than proximal (aka, further away is better)
Banks + colleagues, 2015
-looked at kayakers + evaluated whether there was faster race time when focusing on finish line or paddle
-study found that focusing on finish line (further away) was better
Bell + Hardy, 2009
-evaluated golfers for focusing on ball trajectory, landing point, or club
-study found that the landing point was most significant impact on accuracy
McKay + Wolf, 2012
-looked at dart throwing accuracy; subjects focused on bullseye or trajectory of dart
-study found that focusing on bullseye (furthest away) was better
Porter + colleagues, 2012
-looked at distance jumped for long jump
-study found that when athletes paid attention to target further away rather than nearby start lines, they performed better
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experience level effects
-novice performers still acquiring the basic movement patterns may benefit more from external focus that is technique-related (proximal)
-aka, especially when it comes to newbies, focusing on external is better
-ex: pro tennis player Roger Federer is more prone to focus internally to very specific technique than a novice player would be; novice player is so overwhelmed with the basic movement patterns that being told to pay attention to their own technique may be overwhelming + cause detriments to performance
wording of instructions/feedback can impact performance + learning profoundly
-optimal focus isn’t always adopted, especially if coaches have instructed based on body movements
-some types of focus depend on the skill + combine foci
ex: dancer doing complete static balance over a long period of time
describe instructions/feedback
subject must think about legs, arms, etc. while doing this static task + has longer time to modify her movements
ex: dancer doing dynamic + ballistic skills with little time for conscious control
describe instructions/feedback
subject is better if adopting external focus (imagining a glide through the air/jumping over something/reaching for the sky) + analogy from instructor would be beneficial (“reach as if you’re reaching for the sky)
motivational influences
motivation has indirect effect on motor learning, may encourage learners to practice more
-social-cognitive-affective influence on human behavior; there is an impact of self-efficacy
-impacts attitude
confidence is reflected in what
movement fluidity/automaticity
-success breeds confidence + potentiates further success
-practice that increases self-efficacy facilitates learning + mistakes can lead to further mistakes
learning is more effective when…
-positive social-comparative information is provided
* if we compare our subjects with others similar to them + say “those people did really well, you can too”, our subjects will do better
-task appears less complex or concerns are limited
-success is defined with less stringent criterion
* if our bullseye is bigger, they will feel as if they were more successful
**
social-comparative information
-when learners believe they are performing a certain way, their learning is impacted
-using positive vs negative vs no feedback (control) does have an impact
perceptions of task difficulty
facilitate learning by enhancing performer expectations or alleviating concerns
Wulf. Chivacowsky, + Lewthwaite, 2012
-age-based study where older adults learned a novel + challenging balance task
-enhanced expectancy group was told people perform well on task; this made task less daunting + alleviated concerns related to reduced neuromuscular abilities
-we care about retention because it is a way to measure permanent motor learning
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observational learning
-learning from a model; demonstrates skill so learners can observe the action directly
-can be done in person or via videos/photos of skilled performers
-information can be represented spatially + can be modeled if the spatial attributes are presented in static, discrete ways (start + finish to each movement); ex: sign language
-even very fine spatial information can successfully be learned through demonstration; ex: difficult suture in surgery
**
mirror neurons
neuron that fires BOTH when animal acts + when animal observes the same action
-neuron mirrors the behavior of the other; monkey see, monkey do
**
mental practice
mental rehearsal of the performance of a task, using imagery techniques in the absence of overt physical practice
Hird et al., 1991
-compared mental vs physical practice using 12 experimental groups; 6 groups pegboard test + 6 groups pursuit rotor task, control group performed unrelated task on stabilometer for same time
-pretest -> 7 sessions of training -> posttest
-pegboard results- there was reduced practice improvement with the mental group compared to the physical; mental was much better for the control group
-pursuit rotor results- reduction in how well subjects performed, the fewer physical sessions they had; we see having some sort of mental practice is better than NO mental or physical at all
when not possible, ____ is better than nothing
mental practice
-it is important to recognize in patients with disorders that don’t allow them to move at all (or as well as healthy individuals), visualization is SO impactful
-we can see that brain regions are turned on even when picturing movements
work periods
time spent actually practicing
rest periods
time not practicing
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distribution of practice
scheduling work periods + rest periods; imperative for working within constraints of shorter time frames + longer time scales
massing
putting things together, running work periods close together with no or limited rest intervals
distributing
spacing work periods with longer rest intervals
**
main points of distribution of practice
-short rest periods degrade performance; longer rest periods result in more effective performances
-fatigue
-temporary performance + relatively permanent learning
Badly + Longman, 1978
-looked at massed vs distributed practice for training postal workers using a keyboard under different practice distribution schedules
-found that shorter rest periods degrade performance + longer rest periods resulted in more effective performance
-SO, give your athlete some rest
-recognized fatigue plays significant role on when rest periods are too short
-recognized that temporary performance + relatively permanent learning was more enhanced for permanent learning when practice was distributed (split up)
**
variability of practice
-learning is influenced by variability- this is recognized by the fact that some tasks have inherent variability
-acquiring capability to cope with novel situations is vital in open skills
* ex: steering a car down an unfamiliar road
* constant, unvarying situations wouldn’t be appropriate
-variable practice is not obvious during closed skills, where environmental conditions are always similar
* ex: bowling
* constant settings are preferred
**
retention + transfer are ways we measure ____
permanent learning
**
practicing the same or similar tasks facilitates retention/transfer
retention
**
variable practice increases generalizability during retention/transfer
transfer
other factors that influence the effects of variability
-subject characteristics (age, nature of task, etc.)
-contextual interference (due to context in which skills are practiced)
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guidance
-learner is physically assisted through the task being learned
-variety of procedures (physical pushing + pulling through movement sequences, preventing incorrect movements by physical limitations or a verbal talk-through of the actions)
-recognize that performance will be better DURING guidance, so transfer is imperative
Armstrong, 1970
-looked at 3 day practice with transfer test on 3rd day when no augmented information was provided to any of the subjects
-groups:
* terminal knowledge of performance- got feedback about how they performed AT END
* concurrent knowledge of performance- got feedback about how they performed WHILE they were doing the movements
* guidance- had physical guidance that kept their elbow movements in specific location
-during blocks of trials (practice/acquisition phase): guidance group had little error, concurrent KP did reasonable + improved, terminal KP didn’t do as well as other groups but still improved
-in the transfer: guidance group didn’t do well, concurrent KP didn’t do well either, best group was terminal KP
-this means guidance is fine but won’t do subjects well in terms of learning (transfer test) because they won’t be able to perform without the device
-feedback (knowledge of power) is useful; the best time to give feedback is after a set of trials (terminal KP), after subjects made changes on their own
**
instances where guidance may be beneficial
-when interspersed with active practice trials
-when used with complex tasks
-when it is less physically restrictive + allows subjects to manipulate some aspects of the apparatus involved
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generalizations on guidance
-may be effective in early practice when task is unfamiliar (but should be removed later on)
-may be most effective for slow tasks; rapid or ballistic tasks not benefitted
-prevention of injury or reduction of fear (manual assistance, harnesses, spotting belts)
summary
attention can be ____ + have impact during practice
redirected
summary
____ is a strong influencer of practice
motivation
summary
learning by observation is possible, as is mental practice; nothing is as impactful as ____
physical practice
summary
guidance can have useful influence over practice, depending on ____
scenario
