Ch, 1 Defining Science

Question 1

Define Science.

Answer 1

the systematic study of the physical and natural worlds through observation and experimentation

Question 2

Define confirmation bias.

Answer 2

looking for research and evidence that supports your hypothesis

Question 3

Define the independent variable.

Answer 3

factor manipulated by the experimenter (caffeine consumption)

Question 4

Define the dependent variable.

Answer 4

variable that depends on the manipulation of the independent variable (memory retention in relation to caffeine consumption)

Question 5

What is the difference in variable usage between experimental and non-experimental methods?

Answer 5

VARIABLES ARE NOT MANIPULATED IN NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS, NO CONCLUSION OF CAUSALITY)

Question 6

Define reliability.

Answer 6

stability of the research results; it can be replicated many times

Question 7

Define validity.

Answer 7

quality of the research and the process it followed: DO YOUR QUESTIONS MATCH THE CONSTRUCT YOU ARE TRYING TO FOLLOW?

Question 8

Define Internal validity.

Answer 8

refers to the ability of a study or measure to do what it is advertised to do (THE RESEARCH ACCOMPLISHES ITS GOAL AND FOLLOWS THE FRAMEWORK IT HAS SET OUT)

Question 9

Define External Validity:

Answer 9

the ability to apply our results beyond the people participating in the immediate study (strict lab experiments in highly controlled environments rarely have external validity, or the ability to apply to the natural environment around us)

Question 10

Concurrent Validity:

Answer 10

correlations with established instruments in the field as evidence of validity (lines up with other existing valid experiments or research)

Question 11

Define Theories

Answer 11

set of facts and relationships among facts that explain and predict natural phenomena (how or why something works)

Question 12

Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model:

Answer 12

how an individual thinks about moral values can be influenced by their situation

Question 13

Define empiricism.

Answer 13

learning by observing

Question 14

Define rational thinking.

Answer 14

believing what makes sense; interpreting the evidence in front of you in the simplest way

Question 15

Define Strong Inference, John Platt.

Answer 15

A type of inductive reasoning: starts with observation

Question 16

Outline the 4 steps to strong inferences.

Answer 16

(1) Develop alternative hypotheses to explain a problem
(2) Devise experiments that will exclude one or more of the alternate hypotheses
(3) Carry out the experiment carefully
(4) Refine the possibilities that remain (rinse and repeat)

Question 17

Define inductive reasoning.

Answer 17

Observation—Pattern—Hypothesis—Theory
Bottom up reasoning
Begins with observations in real life
Hypothesis and conclusions/theories emerge from these observations
Helpful when exploring a new phenomena

Question 18

Define deductive reasoning.

Answer 18

Theory—Hypothesis—Observation—Confirmation
Top down reasoning
Starts with a theory
Used primarily with experimental methods

Question 19

Define the uses of Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment in relationship to inductive and deductive reasoning/

Answer 19

One group of children watched an adult beat and kick a bobo doll while the other group did not
The group that had seen the aggressive adult also acted aggressively, while the other group did not
Bandura argues that certain conditions must be met before the children would imitate the adult’s behavior, including the need to pay attention
THIS EXPERIMENT WAS INDUCTIVE REASONING
We can use deductive reasoning to apply this experiment to observe children playing violent video games and the effects on them

Question 20

Define the difference between basic science and applied science.

Answer 20

Basic Science: driven by scientist’s curiosity
Applied Science; defined as research that aims to solve a particular practical problem; the goal is for the improvement of human well-being

Question 21

Define the concept of an Argument from Authority and its dangers to the scientific enterprise.

Answer 21

refers to believing people who seem to have some credibility about a subject without examining the data yourself

Question 22

Define heuristics and its danger to the scientific enterprise.

Answer 22

mental shortcuts that may lead us astray by believing that sharks are more dangerous than cows, built on “common sense”

Question 23

Define pseudoscience.

Answer 23

does not follow the rules of science, but it is presented in ways that make people believe that it does
Pseudoscience uses deviant doctrine, by rejecting prevailing scientific theories without the evidence to support a rejection

Question 24

Outline Hansson’s Checklist of Pseudoscience. H-U-D-B-E-N

Answer 24

Handpicked Examples: examples do not represent the general category of the phenomena under study
Unwillingness to Test: although possible tests to a theory exist, the pseudoscientist does not carry these tests out
Disregard of Refuting Info: conflicting data/theories are ignored
Built-in-Subterfuge: testing is set up in a biased way to ensure that only one theory will be supported
Explanations are abandoned without replacement: new theories end up explaining less than the previous versions
Nocebo Effect: negative symptoms can be caused by expectation

Question 25

Elaboration Likelihood Mode.

Answer 25

states that we use one of two pathways, central or peripheral, when evaluating information

Question 26

Define central and peripheral routes of analyzing info.

Answer 26

Central Pathway: used when an issue is important to us, and we know a great deal of information already on the subject FOCUSES ON FACT AND LOGIC
Peripheral Pathway: used for everything else; more vulnerable to messages influencing us by means other than logic

Question 27

Define the difference between inference and assumption.

Answer 27

Assumption: NOT USING EVIDENCE idea that you accept as true or certain to happen without any proof/ type of heuristic, based on categorizations or stereotypes
Meta-Analysis: summary of a large number of independent studies for examination
Inference: USING EVIDENCE step made using reason and evidence on the road to a conclusion, based on an assumption

Question 28

Define the third variable problem presented in the study of violent video games and child behavior.

Answer 28

Often ignores the third variable problem: children with mental health conditions or naturally aggressive tendencies may be more engaged in violent video games, or may have histories of suppressed trauma or are currently living in abuse: these varying factors play a large role in aggression, NOT just the video games
Causes can ONLY be determined by rigid experiments, and experimenting on children to determine the outcome and causal factors of aggression has extensive ethical limitations