cells to immunology Flashcards
go through your camera roll labelling an animal cell and a plant cell
my neck hurts
what is the structure of the nuclear envelope?
what is the structure of the nucleoplasm?
what is the chromsome (unit 2 cells definition)
what is the role of the nucleolus (2)
what are the two general functions of the nucleus?
what is a structure that both the RER and the SER have, what’s it called too?
what does RER have on this structure that the SER doesn’t?
function of RER + SER:
what is the structure of golgi?
how do we get vesicles from golgi?
- double membrane
- granular jelly like substance/material
- protein bound linear dna
- site of rRna production and makes ribosomes
- site of dna replication and transcription where mRNA is made + contains the genetic code for each cell
- folded membranes called cisternae
- ribosomes
- RER: protein synthesis
- SER: synthesises and stores lipids and carbohydrates
- folded membranes making cisternae
- vesicles are pinched off from the cisternae
what’s the general function of the golgi (THD)
give me a list of the many things the golgi can do: 5
what is the role of the vesicle,
yes it’s been pinched off from the cisternae, but what’s its purpose?
what is the structure of a lysosome?
what are the functions of a lysosome? (4)
- processes, packages and modifies proteins
- add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins
- produce secretory enzymes
- secrete carbohydrates
- transports, modifies and stores lipids
- FORM lysosomes
- to transport the modified molecules
- it’s a vesicle of bag filled with digestive enzymes
- hydrolyse phagocytic cells
- completely break down dead cells
- digest worn out organells to reuse the material
- carry out exocytosis in which they release the enzymes to the outside of the cell todestroy the material
give 4 structures of the mitochodria:
what are the 2 functions of the mitochondria?
what is a ribosome?
what from either eukaryotic and prokaryotic have the bigger ribosomes?
size of E and size of P?
what is the function of the ribosome?
what is a vacuole?
what are the functions of the vacuole? (3)
what is the structure of a chlorpolast? (3)
what is the function of a chloroplast
- double membrane
- inner membrane called cristae
- fluid center/in the middle called the mitochondrial matrix
- loop of mitochondria dna
- site of aerobic respiration
- site of ATP production
- small made up of 2 sub units of protein and rRna
- eukaryotic
- E: 80s, P: 70s
- site of protein synthesis
- fluid surrounded by a single membrane called a tonoplast
- makes cell turgid and therefore provides support
- temporarily store sugars and amino acids
- give pigment/colour to petals to attract pollinators
- surrounded by a double membrane
- contain thylakoids which are folded membranes embedded with pigment
- fluid filled stroma containing enzymes for photosynthesis
- site of photosynthesis
what two places is the cell wall found in?
what is the cell wall made of in plants?
and in fungi?
what is the function of the cell wall?
what does the plasma membrane consist of?
what is the function of the plasma membrane?
- plants and fungi
- made up of microfibrils of the cellulose polymer
- made up of chitin which is a nitrogen containing polysaccharide
- provide structural strength to the cell
- phospholipid bilayer with molecules embedded within and attached on the outisde (ex. proteins, carbohydrates, cholersterol)
- controls the entrance and exit of molecules
what are the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic structures? (5)
what are differences betwen P and E that prokaryotic structures sometimes have? (3)
give examples of membrane bound organelles in eukaryotic structures? (5)
what do prokaryotic structures have instead of a nucleus?
what does the cell wall in prokaryotes contain and what is it?
what are plasmids that are sometimes in prokaryotes?
what are capsules that are only a sometime thing?
what are the 2 functions of capsules?
what is the function of the flagella?
- the cells are smaller
- smaller ribosomes
- cell wall made of murein
- no membrane bound organelles
- no nucleus
- plasmids
- capsule around the cell
- flagella
- golgi
- mitochondria
- nucleus
- endoplasmic reticulum
- chloroplasts
- SINGLE circular dna molecule free in the cytoplasm which is not protein bound
- contains murein a glycoprotein
- SMALL loops of dna that only carry a few genes
- slimy layer made up of protein
- prevents the bacteria from drying out and protects the bacteria against the host’s immune system
- it rotates to enable the bacteria to move
what is the definition of magnification?
and resolution?
what is the resolution of electron microscopes determined by?
and optical microscopes?
how is an image produced in an optical microscope?
which one has a poorer resolution O or E and why?
which one has a lower magnification O or E?
what type of images do optical microscopes produce?
what kind of samples can you view on optical microscopes?
how is an image formed in electron microscopes?
what is the magnification and resolving power/resolution like in electron microscopes?
why is the resolving power higher in electron microscopes?
what type of images do THEY produce?
what kind of samples can you view on electron microscopes and why?
what is NOT visible in an optical microscope considering its poor resolution?
why must the sample be in a vacuum with electron microscopes?
why is the image in electron microscopes black and white?
how do the beam of electrons get to where they need to be in a TEM?
what do the darker parts on the image mean?
what D is the image produced in TEM (like is it 2d or 3d)
are the internal structures detailed or no?
what is the size of the specimen in TEM and SEM
why does the specimen need to be thin in TEM?
how do the beam of electrons get to where they need to be in a SEM?
what D is the image produced in SEM (like is it 2d or 3d)
draw out that conversion table and see if you got it right on your phone
cm to mm?
- how many times larger an image is compared to an object
- the minimum distant between 2 objects in which they can still be viewed as separate
- the wavelength of a beam of electrons
- wavelength of light
- beam of light is condensed to form an image
- optical. poorer resolution due to light having a longer wavelength
- optical
- colour
- living samples
- a beam of electrons is condensed by ELECTROMAGNETs to form an image
- high
- due to electrons having a shorter wavelength
- black and white
- non living samples since they must be in a vaccuum
- small organelles IN A CELL aren’t visible
- otherwise the electrons will be absorbed by air
- the sample must be stained
- they pass through the specimen
- more electrons absorbed
- it’s 2D
- detailed
- specimen must be thin in TEM but don’t need to be in SEM
- in order for the beam of electrons to pass through/transmit through
- the electrons are beamed onto the surface and are scattered in different ways depending on the contours
- 3D
- x10
how do we calibrate the eyepiece graticule?
- line up the eyepiece graticule next to the stage micrometer as you are looking through the eyepiece
- count how many divisions on the eyepiece graticule fit into one division on the MICROMETER SCALE
- each division on the micrometer is 10 micrometers this can be used to calculate what one division on the eyepiece graticule is at the current magnification
why do we carry out cell fractionation?
why does the solution have to be cold, isotonic and buffered?
what are the two steps of cell fractionation?
describe the first process:
describe the second process:
what is the order of organelle fractionation? (you’ve got an acronym)
the less dense the organelle, the ________ the ________ needed to separate the organelle
- used to isolate the different organelles so they can be studied
cold: - to reduce enzyme activity
- when the cell is broken enzymes are released that could damage the organelles
isotonic: - the organelles have to have the same water potential as the solution to prevent osmosis as this could cause the organelles to shrink or burst
buffered: - THE SOLUTION HAS A PH BUFFER to prevent damage to organelles
- homogenisation and ultracentrifugation
homogenisation: - the cell is broken UP up/homogenised using a blender
- the cell is blended in a cold isotonic buffered solution
- the solution is then filtered to remove large cell debris
ultracentrifugation:
- the centrifuge SPINS at high speeds AND the centrifugal forces causes pellet of the most dense organelle TO FORM at the bottom of the tube
- the process is repeated at increasingly FASTER speeds. removing the supernatant EACH TIME leaving behind the pellet
- the supernatant is spun AGAIN in the centrifuge and the process is repeated
- NUCLEI
- chloroplasts and mitochondria
- lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
- ribosomes
- the less dense the organelle, the higher the speed needed to separate the organelle
what molecules can simply diffuse through/pass through the partially permeable membrane?
what molecules can’t?
why is the membrane described as a fluid mosaic model?
why is it a partially permeable membrane structure?
why do the phospholipids align as a bilayer?
what is the role of cholesterol?
the more cholesterol there is..?
why is cholesterol useful in the membrane?
what are the roles of peripheral/extrinsic proteins?
what is the job of glycoproteins and glycolipids?
what is the job of integral/intrinsic proteins?
how do channel proteins carry out their role?
and how do carrier proteins?
- lipid soluble molecules
- small molecules
- water soluble/polar molecules
- large molecules
- due to the MIXTURE and MOVEMENT of the PHOSPHOLIPIDS, proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids
- due to all the molecules arranged in the phospholipid bilayer
- due to the hydrophilic heads being attracted to water and the hydrophobic tails being repelled by water
- it restricts the lateral movement of OTHER MOLECULES IN THE MEMBRANE
- THE LESS FLUID
- MAKES THE MEMBRANE LESS FLUID AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
- prevents water and dissolved ions leaking out of the cell
- provide mechanical support
- connect TO PROTEINS OR LIPIDS TO MAKE glycoproteins and glycolipidse
- cell recognition AS receptors
- are carrier proteins or channel proteins INVOLVED IN THE TRANSPORT of molecules across the membrane
- form tubes that fill wih water for WATER SOLUBLE IONS TO DIFFUSE
- bind with larger molecules (ex. glucose and amino acids) and change shape to transport them across the membrane
what is the definition of simple diffusion?
why does simple diffusion only occur in liquids and gases? why does the process not need ATP in order for the molecules to even move?
what type of process is facilitated diffusion and why?
how does it work and what is used?
how are channel proteins selective?
what is the definition of osmosis?
what is the potential of pure water?
isotonic meaning?
hypotonic?
hypertonic?
what is everything that happens to animal cells if they’re placed in a hypotonic solution?
does the same happen to plant cells?
what is everything that happens to both plant cells and animal cells if they’re placed in a hypertonic solution?
definition of active transport?
how does ATP fit into active transport/what’s its role? (3)
- net movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until an equilibrium is reached
- due to kinetic energy that enables them to flow
- passive process as it requires no atp
- proteins are used to transport molecules
- they only open in the presence of certain ions when they bind to the protein
- the movement of water from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential across a partially permeable membrane
- zero
- the water potential is the same both in the solution and in the cell
- the water potential in the solution is more POSITIVE/closer to zero than the cell
- the water potential in the solution is more NEGATIVE than the cell
- water will move in by osmosis
- as the cell doesn’t have a cell wall the pressure will cause the cell to burst and lysis will occur
- no, as they have a strengthened cell wall so the cell will just become turgid
- water will leave the cell by osmosis
- causing the cell to shrink and become shrivelled
- the movement of molecules and ions from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration AGAINST the concentration gradient using atp and carrier proteins
- ATP will bind to the protein ON the inside of the membrane and hydrolse back into ADP and PI
- this causes the carrier protein to change shape and release the molecule/ion to on the other side of the membrane
- the Pi molecule is then released from the protein RESULTING in the protein reverting to its original shape
why is ATP required in the co-transport of glucose and sodium ions in the ileum?
describe the whole long process:
- as there’s a higher concentration of glucose in the epithelial cells
- sodium ions are actively transported OUT OF THE epithelial cells into the blood
- there is now a reduced concentration of sodium ions in the epithelial cells
- sodium ions CAN THEN DIFFUSE FROM THE LUMEN DOWN THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT into the epithelial cell
- the protein THE SODIUM IONS DIFFUSE THROUGH is A co-transporter protein.SO EITHER glucose or amino acids ALSO attach and are transported into the epithelial cells across their concentration gradient
