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GCSE Biology > Cell Organisation > Flashcards

Cell Organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the order that specialised cells form things in?

A

Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems

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2
Q

What is a tissue?

A

a group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function

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3
Q

What is an example of a type of tissue?

A

Muscular tissue- contracts, moves what its attached to
Glandular tissue- makes and secretes chemicals (enzymes, hormones)
Epithelial tissue- covers part of the body (inside of the gut)

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4
Q

What is an organ?

A

a group of different tissues that work together to perform a certain function

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5
Q

What tissues is the stomach made of?

A

Muscular tissue- moves the stomach wall to churn food
Glandular tissue- makes digestive juices to digest food
Epithelial tissue- covers the outside and inside of stomach

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6
Q

What is an Organ system?

A

a group of organs working together to perform a specific function

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7
Q

What is the digestive system made up of (organs)?

A
  • Glands (pancreas, salivary- produce digestive juices)
  • stomach + small intestine, digests food
  • liver, produces bile
  • small intestine, absorbs soluble food molecules
  • large intestine, absorbs water from undigested food, leaving faeces.
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8
Q

What do organ systems work together to make?

A

an organism

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9
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Biological catalysts that speed up useful chemical reactions in the body
Large proteins (chain of amino acids folded into unique shapes)

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10
Q

What is a catalyst?

A

a substance which increases the rate of reaction, without being changed or used up.

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11
Q

What is an active site?

A

a unique shape of an enzyme that fits onto a specific substance to catalyse its reaction

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12
Q

How many reactions does 1 enzyme catalyse?

A

1

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13
Q

What is the lock and key model?

A
  • the active site of an enzyme is specific to a substrate
  • the substrate binds to the enzyme, which then allows it to react and breaks off the enzyme
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14
Q

What factors affect enzymes?

A
  • temperature
  • pH
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15
Q

What do digestive enzymes break down?

A

Starch, proteins, lipids (big molecules)

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16
Q

Why do digestive enzymes break down bigger molecules (starch, proteins, lipids) ?

A
  • they are too big to pass the walls of the digestive system
  • broken down into smaller molecules like sugars (maltose, glucose), amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids
  • now small can be absorbed into the bloodstream
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17
Q

What enzyme breaks down starch into simple sugars?

A

Carbohydrase (amylase)

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18
Q

Where is amylase produced?

A
  • salivary glands
  • pancreas
  • small intestine
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19
Q

What enzyme breaks down protien into amino acids?

A

Protease

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20
Q

Where is protease made?

A
  • stomach
  • pancreas
  • small intestine
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21
Q

What enzyme breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids?

A

lipase

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22
Q

Where is lipase made?

A
  • pancreas
  • small intestine
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23
Q

What is the role of bile?

A
  • neutralises hydrochloric acid in the stomach (enzymes in small intestine work best at lower pH/ alkaline conditions)
  • emulsifies fats-> larger SA of fat, easier for lipase to digest faster
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24
Q

What is the role of the liver?

A
  • Bile is produced
  • emulsifies fat
  • neutralises stomach acid
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25
Q

What is the role of the gall bladder?

A
  • Bile is stored before being released into the small intestine
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26
Q

What is the role of the large intestine?

A
  • excess water is absorbed from food
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27
Q

What is the role of the rectum?

A
  • faeces is stored before being excreted through anus
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28
Q

What is the role of the stomach?

A
  • pummels food with muscular walls
  • produces protease enzyme, pepsin
  • produces Hydrochloric acid, kills bacteria + give right pH for protease to work (pH 2)
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29
Q

What is the role of the pancreas?

A
  • produces protease, amylase + lipase
  • releases into small intestine
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30
Q

What is the role of the small intestine?

A
  • produces protease, amylase + lipase (complete digestion)
  • digestive food is absorbed out of digestive system into blood
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31
Q

Where are the lungs located?

A

the Thorax

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32
Q

How is the lungs separated from the lower part of the body?

A

with the Diaphragm

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33
Q

How are the lungs protected?

A

the Ribcage

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34
Q

How does air reach your lungs?

A
  • breathed in
  • through trachea
  • splits into 2 tubes, Bronchi
  • go into lung through Bronchioles (smaller tubes)
  • reach Alveoli (small bags), gas exchange takes place
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35
Q

How do alveoli carry out gas exchange?

A
  • alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood capillaries
  • blood passing-> returning from body to lungs= deox, lots of CO2
  • oxygen diffuses out of alveolus into blood, CO2 diffuses out of blood into alveolus (breathed out)
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36
Q

How is oxygen carried from the lungs to body cells?

A
  • When blood reaches body cells, oxygen released by Red blood cells + diffuses into body cells
  • CO2 diffuses out of body cells into blood, carried back to lungs
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37
Q

What is the double circulatory system?

A
  • made up of the heart, blood and lungs
  • double because it passes through the heart twice (once from body, once from lungs)
38
Q

How does the double circulatory system work?

A
  • right ventricle pumps DEOX blood to lungs, OX blood then returns to heart
  • left ventricle pumps OX blood around body to organs, DEOX blood returns to heart, pump to lungs again
39
Q

What is the heart?

A

pumping organ, keeps blood flowing around the body

40
Q

What are features of the heart?

A
  • walls of the heart-> mostly muscle tissue
  • valves-> blood flows in correct direction, not backwards
41
Q

What are the 4 chambers of the heart?

A

Left atrium, Right atrium, Left ventricle, Right ventricle

42
Q

How does blood get into the heart?

A
  • Through the vena cava (deox) and pulmonary vein (ox)
  • Goes into the atria (left and right atrium)
43
Q

How does the heart contract to pump blood around the body

A
  • Blood flows into the 2 atria through the vena cava and pulmonary vein
  • the atria contract, pushes blood into ventricles
  • ventricles contract, forcing blood into pulmonary artery and aorta (out of the heart)
  • blood flows to organs through arteries, returns through veins
  • cycle repeats, atria fill with blood again
44
Q

What supplies the heart with oxygenated blood?

A

Coronary arteries, branch of the aorta + surround the heart

45
Q

What is a pacemaker?

A

a group of cells in the right atrium which control resting heart rate
- the cells produce small electrical impulses, spreading to surrounding muscle cells, cause contraction

46
Q

What is an artificial pacemaker?

A

controls heartbeat if natural pacemaker cells don’t work (irregular heartbeat).
Device planted under skin, wire into the heart, produces electrical current, keeps regular heartbeat.

47
Q

What are the 3 types of blood vessels?

A

Arteries- carry blood away from heart
Veins- carry blood to heart
Capillaries- exchange of materials at tissues

48
Q

What are the features of arteries?

A
  • pump blood at high pressure, strong + elastic walls
  • thick walls, small lumen
  • thick layers of muscles (strong) + elastic fibres (stretchy)
49
Q

What are the features of Capillaries?

A
  • Arteries branch into capillaries
  • Tiny
  • Carry blood really close to every cell (exchange substances)
  • Permeable walls (diffusion)
  • Supply food + oxygen, remove waste (CO2)
  • 1 cell thick wall, increases rate of diffusion, decreases distance
50
Q

What are the features of Veins?

A
  • capillaries join up to veins
  • lower pressure blood-> less thick walls
  • larger lumen-> help blood flow
  • valves-> help blood flow in right direction
51
Q

What is the role of Red blood cells?

A

carry oxygen from lungs to all body cells

52
Q

What are features of Red blood cells?

A
  • biconcave shape-> large SA for absorbing O2
  • No nucleus-> more room for oxygen
  • Red pigment= haemoglobin
53
Q

How is oxygen transported from red blood cells to body cells?

A

lungs- Haemoglobin binds to oxygen = oxyhaemoglobin
body tissues- oxyhaemoglobin splits to haemoglobin and oxygen, releases oxygen to cells

54
Q

How do white blood cells defend against infection

A

the process of Phagocytosis
OR
Produce antitoxins and antibodies

They also have a nucleus

55
Q

What is the process of Phagocytosis?

A
  • A phagocyte binds to the cell it wants to engulf
  • binds to the cell, surrounds it before engulfing and digesting it
56
Q

What are platelets and what are their role?

A
  • small fragments of cells, no nucleus
  • help the blood clot at a wound (stops blood getting out, microorganisms getting in)
  • lack of platelets, excessing bruising + bleeding
57
Q

What is plasma and what is its role?

A
  • liquid that carries substances in the blood
  • red, white cells, platelets
  • nutrients (glucose, amino acids- taken to body cells)
  • CO2 (organs to lungs)
  • Urea (liver to kidneys)
  • Hormones
  • Proteins
  • Antibodies + Antitoxins
58
Q

What is the role of stents?

A

Tubes that are inserted inside arteries, keeping them open for blood to pass through -> heart beating + person alive

-lower risk of heart attack for coronary heart disease
- long time effectiveness
- quick recovery time from surgery

-risk of surgery complications + infection
- develop a blood clot (thrombosis)

59
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

coronary arteries get blocked by layers of fatty material built up.
- arteries become narrow, blood flow = restricted, lack of oxygen to heart muscle
- can lead to heart attack

60
Q

What is the role of statins?

A

Drugs that reduce the amount of ‘bad’ cholesterol in the blood, slows down rate of fatty deposits forming

61
Q

What is cholesterol + its problems

A
  • essential lipid
  • too much LDL cholesterol causes fatty deposits inside arteries, leading to coronary heart disease
62
Q

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Statins?

A
  • reduce risk of strokes, coronary heart disease, heart attacks
  • increase good/HDL cholesterol, can remove bad cholesterol
  • may prevent some other diseases (studies)
  • long term drug, has to be taken regularly
    -negative side effects (headaches, kidney damage, memory loss, liver failure)
  • takes time for effect to kick in
63
Q

What is an artificial heart?

A

a mechanical device that pumps blood for a person whose own heart has failed
- normally used until a donor heart can be found, can be used as permanent solution, reduced donor heart demand

64
Q

What are advantages and disadvantages of artificial hearts?

A
  • less likely to be rejected than donor (metal or plastic, unrecognised as foreign)
  • surgery risks + complication + infection
  • don’t work as well as healthy hearts (parts could wear out)
  • blood doesn’t flow as smoothly, causes blood clots, leads to strokes
  • blood thinners, causes bleeding problems if in accident
65
Q

What are biological valves?

A

valves taken from humans or other mammals (cows or pigs)

66
Q

What are mechanical valves?

A

man made valves

67
Q

Why are mechanical and biological valves used?

A
  • heart valves can be damaged/weakened by heart attacks, infection, old age
  • causes valves to stiffen, won’t open properly
  • leaky valves, blood flows in both direction (inefficient circulation)
  • less drastic procedure than whole heart transplant, still major surgery + blood clot issues
68
Q

What is artificial blood?

A

blood substitute, used to replace lost volumes of blood

otherwise need a blood transfusion

69
Q

How can different diseases interact?

A
  • increased immune system issues-> increase chances of suffering from communicable diseases (ie flu). Body is less likely to be able to defend itself against disease pathogen
  • some cancer can be triggered by certain virus infections (HPV-> cervical cancer)
  • immune system reactions by disease infection triggers allergic reactions (skin rashes, worsen asthma)
  • Mental health issues triggered by physical health problems (impact of everyday life, life expectancy)
70
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

an organism that causes a disease

71
Q

What factors affect health?

A
  • balanced diet
  • stress
  • access to medical care, food, condoms
72
Q

What are risk factors for non-communicable diseases? (increase chances of disease)

A
  • lifestyle (exercise)
  • environment (air pollution)
  • diet
73
Q

What risk factors directly cause a disease?

A
  • smoking (lung disease, lung cancer)
  • obesity (type 2 diabetes)
  • alcohol (liver damage)
  • smoking when pregnant (health problems for unborn baby)
  • exposure to substances/ radiation (cancer from carcinogens, ionising radiation)
74
Q

What is cancer caused by?

A

uncontrolled cell growth and division

75
Q

What does a benign tumour mean?

A

the tumour stays in one place (within a membrane)
- not really dangerous, not cancerous

76
Q

What does a malignant tumour mean?

A

tumour spreads and grows to neighbouring healthy tissue, spread through the bloodstream, invade healthy tissues elsewhere + form secondary tumours.
- can be dangerous + fatal, are cancerous

77
Q

What are risk factors associated with lifestyle?

A
  • smoking
  • obesity
  • UV radiation
  • Viral infection
78
Q

What are risk factors associated with genetics?

A
  • inherited faulty genes, more susceptible to cancer
  • mutation-> increased chance of developing breast + ovarian cancer
79
Q

What are examples of plant organs?

A

stems, roots and leaves

80
Q

What are examples of plant tissues?

A

Epidermal tissue- covers the whole plant

Palisade mesophyll tissue- most photosynthesis happens

Spongy mesophyll tissue- big air spaces for gas diffusion in and out of cells

Xylem and Phloem- transport water, mineral ions, food

Meristem tissue- growing tips, shoots, roots, differentiate to different types of plant cells, growth

81
Q

What plant tissues do leaves contain?

A

epidermal, mesophyll, xylem, phloem

82
Q

What are the layers in a leaf?

A

Top to bottom:
- waxy cuticle
- Epidermal tissue
- Palisade mesophyll tissue
- Xylem and Phloem
- Spongy mesophyll tissue = AIR SPACES
- Epidermal tissue
- Stomata + Guard cells

83
Q

What are the functions of structures in a leaf?

A
  • Epidermal tissues-> waxy cuticle, reduces water loss

Upper epidermis-> transparent so light can pass through to the palisade layer

Palisade-> lots of chloroplasts, near top of leaf, photosynthesis

Xylem + Phloem-> deliver water + other nutrients to entire leaf, take away glucose (photosynthesis), support the structure

Tissues-> adapted for efficient gas exchange (stomata)

84
Q

What is the role of the Phloem?

A

Transports food
- made of columns of elongated living cells, small pores in end walls, allow cell sap to flow through
- transport food substances (dissolved sugars) from leaves to rest of plant for immediate use or storage
- TRANSLOCATION

85
Q

What is translocation?

A

Transport of dissolved sugars around a plant within the Phloem

86
Q

What is the role of the Xylem?

A

Take water up
- made of dead cells joined end to end, non end walls, hole in the middle, strengthened by lignin
- carry water + minerals from roots to stem and leaves
- movement of water from roots, through Xylem, out of leaves
- TRANSPIRATION

87
Q

What is Transpiration?

A

The movement of water from the roots through the Xylem out of the leaves
- caused by evapouration and diffusion

88
Q

What is transpiration rate affected by?

A
  • Light intensity: brighter light= greater rate
  • Temperature: warmer= faster rate
  • Air flow: better air flow=greater rate
  • Humidity: drier the air= faster rate
89
Q

How are Guard cells adapted to open and close Stomata?

A
  • kidney shape-> open + closes stomata
  • more water in plant-> guard cells fill + go turgid, stomata open, gases exchange for photosynthesis
  • less water in plant-> guard cells lose water, go flaccid, stomata close, stops water vapour escaping
  • thin outer walls, thickened inner walls-> makes opening and closing work
  • sensitive to light-> close at night, save water without losing on photosynthesis
  • lower surface of leaf-> cooler, less water is lost, more stomata
90
Q

What are guard cells adapted for?

A
  • Gas exchange
  • controlling water loss

GCSE Biology (20 decks)

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