Cattle Husbandry (C 1-10) Flashcards
cows spend an average of this long lying down at pasture
12-14 hours a day
cows ruminate for at least this long per day
7 hours
cows produce this much saliva per day
100-150 liters
what is the optimum pH of the rumen
pH 6-7
these feeds are usually home-grown and thus cheap. it is usually grass grazing in summer/autumn/spring and conserved in winter
forages
these feeds contain a high concentration of nutrients, usually energy or protein and are predominately purchased by the farmer and are thus expensive
concentrates
these are instinctive or unlearned reactions
innate
these are actions that are learnt
acquired
this is the usual measure of reproductive efficiency in cattle. should be 365 days
calving index/interval
average gestation of a cow
282 days
this describes the time when a cow is sexually active and will permit mating, will recur at intervals of 21 days
oestrus
how long does oestrus typically last in a cow
16 hours
when are farmers now advised to inseminate cows?
as soon as they are seen in heat
5 behavioral signs of oestrus in a cow
- restlessness
- bellowing
- grouping of cows together
- scuff marks on tail head and flanks
- standing to be mounted by other cows
most beef suckler herds in the UK use this method to get cows in calf
natural service
majority of dairy cows in the UK are bred by this method
artificial insemination (AI)
what is the major drawback of AI
correct identification of cows in oestrus
4 advantages of using AI
- allows accurate breeding records to be kept (precise calving dates)
- economic service
- controls venereal diseases
- enables rapid genetic improvement in the herd
4 cons of using natural service
- substantial maintenance costs
- spreading venereal diseases
- aggression and low fertility risk
- calving dates unknown
how long after conception can manual rectal palpation be used to detect a pregnancy in a cow
6-8 weeks
how long after conception can transrectal ultrasonography be used to detect pregnancy in a cow
4 weeks
low levels of this hormone in the cows milk at 24 days after service would indicate that the cow was not pregnant
progesterone
aim of these is to improve consumer confidence and food safety, and provide traceability for UK farm produce
farm assurance schemes
what is the standard lactation period of a dairy cow
305 days
what is the standard lactation period of a dairy cow
305 days
how long is the dry period of a dairy cow
60 days
this period is defined as 3 weeks before calving to the 3 weeks after calving and is a critical period; cow will have to give birth, start producing milk, adapt to a new diet, and changes in her social environment
transition period
the cow’s milk yield will peak around this long into lactation
2 months
milk production in dairy cows can be linked with these 6 key variables
- genetic potential
- nutrition
- management
- pregnancy
- age of cow
- disease
this is the traditional method used to feed concentrate to milking cows, but limits the amount of concentrate that can be fed to about 8kg per day
feeding in the milking parlour
this method of feeding concentrate to dairy cows involves additional concentrate to be fed in a trough or put on silage, for the cows to eat between milkings - cheap and easy, but limited benefit
third mid-day feed
this method of feeding concentrates to dairy cows mixes concentrates and forages together in a feeder wagon to be put in a trough for the cows to eat as a group
total mixed rations
name 3 advantages for using a total mixed rations system with dairy cows
- other feedstuffs can be fed, save on feed costs
- concentrate feeding is spread out through the day (rumen health)
- maximizes Dry Matter intakes
name 2 disadvantages for using a total mixed rations system with dairy cows
- feeder/mixer wagons expensive to buy
- less individual targeting of concentrate feeding to cows
cows must conceive within this many days of calving in order to achieve a 365 day calving interval
83 days
what are 4 ways to enhance oestrus detection of cows
- incr. frequency and duration of observation
- good record keeping
- heat detection aids
- synchronization of oestrus
it is recommended that cows should be observed for this many periods of this length throughout the day for signs of oestrus
3 periods of 30 minutes
these are the 5 main traits selected for in dairy sires for AI to improve the overall genetic merit of the herd
- milk yield
- milk composition
- conformation
- disease resistance
- ease of calving
this value reflects the expected increase in revenue per lactation for each daughter relative to an animal with a value of 0
the formula to calculate it is based on PTAs for milk yield and quality, and financial inputs
PIN (profit index)
this is an economic index similar to PIN but also takes into account predicted lifespan with emphasis on longevity and health
PLI (profitable lifetime index)
modern farm animal vet practice is focused on this, which aims to optimize the health of animals within the herd/flock for prevention of disease
herd health
milk samples are taken once a month from all of the milking cows in the herd and analyzed for these 3 things
somatic cell count, butterfat, and milk protein
farms must go through this long of a conversion period in order to be marketed as organic
2 years
calves cannot be weaned before this age on organic farms
12 weeks
this type of calving allows greater control over cow nutrition, by grouping of cows at similar stages of lactation
block calving
what is the main advantage of year-round calving?
constant milk supply
what is a major disadvantage of year-round calving?
difficult to maintain high management standard throughout the year (cows all at different stages of lactation)
what is the main advantages of autumn calving
higher milk prices from oct-dec and takes advantage of spring grass
what is the main disadvantage of autumn calving
greater cost of production (cows fed conserved forage and concentrates during peak lactation)
what is the advantage of spring calving
cows on spring grass during peak lactation (save on feed costs)
what is the advantage of summer calving?
take advantage of higher milk prices from aug-dec
what are the disadvantages of summer calving?
variable milk production due to UK weather effect on grass growth; cows are dry when on lush spring grass and can become too fat
what are the two current options for housing dairy cattle
cubicles or straw yards
this is the most comfortable form of housing for cattle, where they can lie down for Ana average of 13 hours a day
well-bedded straw yards
what are 3 advantages of straw yards for dairy cattle
- comfort (reduce lameness and increased milk production)
- cheap to create
- assist in integration of freshly calved heifers into herd
what are 3 disadvantages of straw yards for dairy cattle
- expensive (high requirement for straw)
- labor intensive (must be bedded 1-2 times daily and cleaned out every 4-6 weeks)
- can be dirty and lead to multiplication of bacteria causing mastitis
what are 2 advantages of cubicles for dairy cows
- maintenance cost is cheaper than straw yards (less bedding needed per cow)
- more cows can be accommodated
what are disadvantages of cubicles for dairy cows
- high initial cost to install and then little scope for adjustment
- training and adaptation of heifers difficult (higher incidence of bullying)
- can restrict movement if too small and lead to higher incidence of lameness (less time lying down)
this is the most commonly used bedding in cubicle systems, very comfortable in sufficient quantity; has been linked with mastitis
straw
this can be a very comfortable bedding in cubicle systems, should be covered with litter to absorb liquids; initial cost is high but subsequent costs are low
mats/mattresses
this is a very comfortable bedding for cubicle systems if correct type is used and at the correct depth; minimizes bacterial growth and is very cheap but may be incompatible with some slurry handling systems
sand
an autumn calving herd will require this many calving/isolation boxes per 100 cows
5-6 boxes/100 cows
this is the most important factor in good clean milk production
efficiency of the milker
an efficiently used strip cup will serve these 3 functions
- detection of mastitis
- remove debris from streak canal (lower bacterial count)
- stimulate milk ‘let down’
what are the 7 steps in a milking routine
- let cows in
- feed cows
- foremilk
- teat washing
- attach cluster
- automatic cluster removal (ACR)
- post milking teat disinfection
what is the average milking time
4 minutes
approximately this much residual ilk will be left after the cluster is removed
0.5 liters
milk should be cooled immediately and stored at a temperature lower than this to prevent bacterial growth for at least 24 hours
4 C
what are the 3 categories of milking parlors?
static parlors, rotary parlors, robotic milkers
this type of static parlor combines full two level milking with batch movement of cows so that manual effort and walking are considerably reduced; cows are positioned at 30 degree angles at each side of a central pit
herringbone
the main advantage of these parlors is that they make it easier to mechanism or automate manual jobs & are mainly used in large herds, but the design costs more, has greater maintenance costs and incidence of mechanical breakdowns and has an inability to expand once installed
rotary parlor
name 5 main advantages of the robotic milker
- labor saving
- improved cow welfare
- can give cows individual attention
- increased yields
- allows increased herd sizes
routine specialist testing of the milking machines must be carried out this often
every 6 months
approximately what percent of the beef eaten in the UK is produced by UK beed producers
80%
the live weight price of a steer is approximately this percent of the deadweight price
50%
this is the most valuable cut of meat, taken from the small cranial end of the tenderloin, or psoas major
fillet steak
the point of maturity occurs earlier or later for a larger framed cattle breed?
later
the point of maturity occurs earlier or later for a smaller framed cattle breed?
earlier
this gender of cattle mature earlier than the other and are thus more susceptible to fat accumulation
female cattle
these outlets generally buy carcase meat wholesale from meat processors
retail outlets
these take the live animal, kill it and process the dead animal into its constituent parts
meat processors
carcases are graded on these two aspects
conformation and fatness
this aspect that carcases are graded on describes the carcass shape in terms of convex/concave profiles; it indicates the amount of flesh (muscle + fat) in relation to size of bones
conformation
this aspect that carcases are graded on refers to the amount of fat outside the carcass, visible to the assessor
fatness
the absolute best beef carcass, usually sold to specific export markets would be this conformation/fatness rating
E2
for the vast majority of supermarkets, a beef carcass with a conformation score of this or greater is sought
R or better
for the vast majority of supermarkets, a beef carcass with a fatness score of one of these is sought
3, 4L, or 4H
name 2 ways grazing suckler cattle and sheep on the same pasture either together or sequentially can improve animal performance
- maximizes productive area of grass (sheep will graze closer to cattle dung pats)
- reduces burden of parasitic gastroenteritis by reducing buildup on pasture (host-specific worms can be eaten and destroyed by the other animal)
these are the principal outputs of a suckler herd
the suckled calves themselves and any cows that are culled
at what age are suckler calves typically weaned
6-10 months
suckler calves should weigh approximately this much when they are weaned
350 kg
what 6 characteristics should an ideal suckler cow have?
- able to conceive and produce a live calf every year
- good mother (sufficient milk)
- good temperament
- be long-lived (8-10 cling seasons)
- produce good quality beef progeny
- survive under adverse weather conditions
what are the 2 main reasons for weaning the suckler calves?
- allows cow to “dry off” for udder tissue to replenish for next lactation
- optimize nutrition in the run-up to calving
this is the tendency of a cross-bred individual to show qualities superior to those of both parents
hybrid vigor (heterosis)
what are the 3 benefits of a pedigree suckler herd
- easily managed (no complicated breeding program)
- produce a consistent product
- bulls can be sold at a premium
what are the 2 benefits of crossbred suckler herds
- hybrid vigor - calves perform at greater level than average of parents
- allows different types of cow to be bred to suit different farm types and environments
each calf in a suckler herd must be registered with this service; noting birth date, sex, dam & sire
British Cattle Movement Service
in a suckler calf’s first month of life, 100% of its weight gain comes from milk, and it will gain this much live weight for each liter of milk it drinks
0.1 kg
at 4 months old, this much of a suckler calf’s weight gain will come from milk
50%
from birth to turnout of suckler calves, you should expect at least this much DLWG (daily live weight gain)
1 kg DLWG
what are 3 arguments in favor of castrating male suckler calves
- eliminate risk of unplanned breeding
- reduce danger of trying to manage more aggressive animals
- reduce risk of fighting between bulls
what are 3 reasons fro disbudding calves
- reduce chance of injury between animals
- less feeding, housing, transport space required
- cattle tend to gain faster, are easier to handle, and attract higher prices
the annual gross income of a suckler cow herd is dependent on these 3 factors
- fertility
- growth rate
- carcass characteristics
this factor is by far the most important in the annual gross income of a suckler cow herd
fertility
how much dry matter intake (DMI) do cattle (and sheep) need in a day?
about 2% of body weight
the crude protein content of the concentrate fed to cows with silage and hay diets is this percent
14%
this crude protein content in concentrate is necessary for cattle with straw based diets
14-16%
these are by- or co-products from shippers, brewers, distillers and the human food industry that can be used in livestock diets
‘straights’
this is a major cause of illness and death in young calves; various bacteria and viruses are involved
diarrhea (scour)
this is a potential problem in housed animals, especially in poorly ventilated buildings and when different age groups are mixed; likely more of concern in weaned than suckling calf
pneumonia
autumn born calves are more at risk for these, as they will consume a good quantity of grass after turnout in spring; without previous exposure/immunity they may be overwhelmed by the infection
internal parasites
calves suckling on cows that were fed on selenium-deficient feed can develop this disease - a nutritional myopathy (may also be caused by a deficiency of vitamin E)
white muscle disease (WMD)
replacement rates should not exceed this percent in a successfully managed suckler cow herd
15%
in this breeding system for replacements, crossbred replacements are sourced from the dairy herd and used to provide replacement heifers for the main herd - maximizes heterosis in the beef calves
half and three-quarters bred system (the bought-in half bred continentals are sired with a beef bull to provide 3/4-bred continental replacements to be bred with a third breed)
in this breeding system for replacements, two herds run in parallel, each bred to a different breed of bull; female offspring can then serve as replacements for the other herd
two-bred rotation system
having this calving pattern means having all cows at the same stage of pregnancy/lactation at the same time
Compact calving
what are the 3 main benefits of compact calving
- more efficient feeding of cows
- more efficient supervision at calving time
- even batches of calves to rear
generally, where breeding soundness is confirmed, the bull:cow ratio for a mature bull (3 years+) is this
1 : 40-60
generally, where breeding soundness is confirmed, the bull:cow ratio for a young bull is this
1 : 20-25
what are 3 important facts about heifers that must be carefully managed at breeding time
- take longer to resume cyclicality
- still growing themselves at calving
- more prone to calving problems
How much colostrum and when should a calf have at its first feeding
6% of its body weight w/in first 6 hours (3L for a 50kg calf)
how much colostrum and when should a calf have its second feeding
6% of its body weight at 12h old (3L for a 50kg calf)
milk is routinely withheld from entering the bulk milk tank for this long following calving
96 hours
this test can be carried out on a blood sample taken from a calf within 1 week of birth to measure the calves immune status
zinc sulphate turbidity test (ZSTT)
calves should ideally have a ZST level greater than this to ensure optimum health and survival
20 grams per liter
in order for a 50 kg calf to drink at least 3L of colostrum w/in the first 6 hours, it would need to suckle for approximately this long
15 minutes
when must dairy cattle be fitted with ear tags?
1st within 36 hours of birth, 2nd within 20 days
all applications for cattle passports must be made to the BCMS within this long of tagging
7 days
do you need to report the deaths of calves that have not been tagged?
NO
with optimal conditions, you can expect it to take approximately this long for colostrum to ferment to be stored
10-14 days
what is the dilution ratio necessary to feed fermented colostrum to calves
3-4 parts colostrum to 2 parts water
it is a requirement that a minimum daily ration of fibrous food be provided to calves over this age
2 weeks
approximately this many kg of skim milk powder can be made from 100 L of whole milk
9 kg
milk substitutes must contain this much crude protein and this much fat to achieve optimal growth rate in early life
20-26% crude protein & 16-20% fat
what 4 major risks of feeding ‘dump’ milk to calves
- higher calf mortality rates
- antibiotic contaminated milk can promote antimicrobial resistant strains of bacteria
- transfer and perpetuate infectious diseases
- mastitis in dump milk can be transmitted from mouth to udders of other cows from cross-suckling
the oesophageal groove in the calf is active until this age
12 weeks
what are the 5 “ingredients” required to cause luminal development in calves
- establish bacteria in the rumen
- have liquid in the rumen
- a system for the rumen to contract and relax
- ability of rumen epithelium to absorb microbial products
- substrate in the rumen
this fatty acid is the strongest stimulant of rumen epithelial development
butyrate (followed by propionate)
initial target growth rates of this per day are acceptable for the first 6 weeks of life for dairy calves
0.6 kg per day
why are bulls more suited to intensive production systems relative to heifers (with steers somewhere in between)
bulls mature later than heifers, therefore less likely to put on fat at an early age if fed for maximal growth rate
during this phase, the principal objective is for the frame size to increase in length and height; the cattle have a large appetite and will thrive on high levels of medium energy forage
growing phase
during this phase, the objective is for a short sharp period of maximal growth rate to raise the likely meat yield and optimize fat cover; appetite doesnt always match their relatively large size and feeding of high energy cereal is necessary
finishing phase
a young growing bull of 450 kg will have a food conversion efficiency (FCE) of this
5:1 (5kg of feed dry matter per 1 kg of live-weight gain)
why is it generally not suitable to keep bulls at pasture but are best suited to intensive, indoor systems of production
because of their size and potential aggressive tendencies
what are the 3 production systems suitable for bull beef production
cereal beef, maize sileage beef, and grass silage beef
this disease can be seen in animals on slats or poorly drained/maintained bedded areas; characterized by the separation of the fibrous junction between the sole and the wall; the corium becomes infected through this opening; can be a major cause of lameness in cereal bull beef cattle
white line disease
this type of beef production system involve the cattle being grazed on pasture during the summer time and are commonly used to produce finished animals within an 18mo timeframe
semi-intensive
these beef production systems are particularly appropriate for heifers and may be referred to as heifer beef systems
semi-intensive 18 mo systems
what carcass weight are you aiming for with beef cattle
260-380 kg
meat derived from calves under this age can be called ‘veal’
8 months
this is a computerized procedure that separates the influence of environment from genetic influence by analyzing data in relation to specific aspects of performance for the animal in question, its siblings, descendants, and pre-descendants
best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP)
these are estimates of the genetic worth of an animal
estimated breeding values (EBVs)
the breeding ability of bulls usually reaches its peak at this age
36 months
8what is the average working life of a bull
3 seasons
one stockman can look after this many dairy cows full-time
100
Name some variables that can affect milk production
weather, silage quality, disease status
good management: nutrition, diseases, fertility, cow welfare
genetics
what are the two major components of the solids-not-fat (SNF) fraction of milk
protein and lactose
what two fractions make up the Total Solids in milk
butterfat and solids-not-fat (SNF)
Variation in milk price can be due to these 6 things
- fat %
- protein %
- hygienic quality (Bactoscan and SCC)
- pattern of supply (seasonal differentials)
- volume per collection
- other penalties/bonuses
the standard liter for milk should have this much butterfat and this much protein
4% butterfat and 3% protein
what is the current (Jan 2022) price per standard liter of milk
45.0 ppl (pence per litre)
for each 0.1% of butterfat above the standard liter, the price per liter will change by this much
+0.225 ppl
for each 0.1% of butterfat below 3.5%, the price per liter will change by this much
-0.6 ppl
this measures all bacteria (dead and alive) in the milk
Bactoscan
this is a measure of the number of cells present in the milk - gives an indirect (and crude) indication of the level of mastitis in a herd
Somatic Cell Counts (SCC)
the average cost of production is around this much per liter of milk
30 ppl
what are 6 factors influencing the profitability of dairy farming?
- potential of land
- capacity of the cow to take in nutrients
- ability of cow to achieve and sustain high milk yields (genetics and physiology)
- lactating period as proportion of total lifetime
- health and welfare
- economics of production (cow numbers, stocking rate, artificial constraints)
this is a common measure to compare farm efficiency and is equal to output - input
gross margin
what 6 points should be considered when choosing a dairy cattle breed
- milk yield and composition
- milk purchaser requirements
- average liveweight (food requirements, stocking density, etc)
- value of cull cows and calves
- cost of replacements
- longevity of health of cattle
this cow is renown for commercial excellence, for high and economic milk yields and the added bonus of fast maturing lean meat production; when crossed with a beef bull, it produces excellent suckler cows
Fresian cow
what is the average lactation yield and butterfat content of British Fresian cows
7,000 liters with 3.8% butterfat
what is the average milk yield and butterfat content of British Holstein cow
8,000 liters with 3.85% butterfat
what is the average milk yield and butterfat content of Ayrshire cows
6,000 liters with 4% butterfat
what is the average milk yield and butterfat content of Jersey cows
5,000 liters with 5.37% butterfat
what is the average milk yield and butterfat content of Guernsey cows
5-6,000 liters with butterfat of 4.68%
what is the average milk yield and butterfat content of Dairy Shorthorn cows
6,000 liters with 3.87% butterfat
what is the average milk yield and butterfat content of Brown Swiss cows
7,000 liters with 4.04% butterfat
it costs approximately this much to replace one cow with a heifer
537 pounds or 1.84 ppl
this is the current average culling rate for dairy cattle in the UK
22-27%
what are the 2 main reasons for culling dairy cows
- “forced” culls (death, disease, poor repro performance)
- “selected” culls
what are the 4 most common reason for “forced” culls in the UK on a dairy farm
- infertility
- mastitis/high SCC
- lameness
- other diseases
what are 4 common reasons for “selected” culls in the UK on a dairy farm
- poor milk yield
- old age
- conformational traits, temperament, non-pedigree
- management (over quota, calving pattern)
it costs about this up to rear a replacement dairy heifer (from birth to first calving)
1100 pounds
what are 3 advantages for calving heifers at 2 years old
- young heifers last longer
- quicker genetic improvement
- easier to manage as a group
- release land for other purposes
most herds will try to bring in this many heifers for every 100 cows
20-25
this is the target weight for Holstein/Friesian heifers at turn out (first summer)
200 kg
this is the target weight for Holstein/Friesian heifers at service start
400 kg (~60% mature BW)
this is the target weight for Holstein/Friesian heifers at calving
550-600 kg
daily weight gain (in grams per day) should be numerically equal to this
mature bodyweight (in kg) - so Holstein/Friesian cow should grow at 700g per day bc mature BW is 700 kg
