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carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

why are carbs one of the main food molecules

A

have high energy H atom associated electrons

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2
Q

what are monosaccharides

what are the 3 of them

A

the 6-C sugars

glucose
fructose
galactose
most common in diet

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3
Q

what are disaccharides

A

monomers linked by glyosidic bonds

the mirror images (anomeric are linked)

react with the anomeric carbon of another monosaccharide

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4
Q

what are the 3 important monosaccharides

A

maltose
lactose
sucrose

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5
Q

what’s a anomeric carbon

A

mirror image of each other

glucose forms a ring #1 carbon

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6
Q

what is maltose

A

not much from diet
break down of starch

it can be oxidised
is a reducing sugar

2 glucose bound together

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7
Q

what is lactose

A

main sugar in mike

formed by glyosidic bond between galactose and glucose

also a reducing sugar

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8
Q

sucrose

A

common table sugar
only made by plants
25% of diet

no C1 oxidation - is a non reducing sugar

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9
Q

what are polysaccharides

what are the 2 classes

A

lots of monomers bound together

homo-polysaccharides - one type of monomer

hetro-polysaccharides - multiple types of monomer

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10
Q

what is starch

A

polysaccharide

contains two types of glucose polymer

amylose
glycosidic bond - alpha 1-4
strait line

amylopectin
glycosidic bond - alpha1-6 every so often
makes the chain bent

THINK OF A HEXAGON

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11
Q

what are reducing ends

and non reducing ends

A

there are lots of non reducing ends

and not many reducing ends

REDUCING ENDS ARE GRANDA IN FAMILY TREE

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12
Q

what is glycogen

A

storage of glycose

using glucose alpha1-4 polymers then every 10 alpha1-6 which makes a new branch

means you can build up and break it down quickly

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13
Q

what is the structure of glycogen

A

so big can see with an electron microscope

form hydrated gels OSMOTICALLY INACTIVE

so many non-reducing ends so can build up and break down quickly

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14
Q

what are glycoproteins

what are the classes

A

proteins that have carbohydrates

GAGAs
proteoglycans
glycoproteins

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15
Q

what are GAGs

A

mucopolysaccharides

in mucus, synovial fluid
form unbranched polymers - form long stringy molecules

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16
Q

what are proteoglycans

A

more carbohydrate than protein

formed by covalently attaching proteins

cell surface, connective tissue

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17
Q

what are glycoproteins

A

more protein than carbohydrate

outer plasma membrane, connective tissue

similar role to proteoglycans

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18
Q

what are the diseases that are caused by GAGs problems

A

mucopolysaccharidoses
genetic disorder, loss of enzyme function, build up of protein

hurler syndrome

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19
Q

what are the carbs in our diet

A

starch

glycogen

cellulose/hemicellulose

oligosaccharides (alpha1-6 galactose)

lactose, sucrose, maltose

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20
Q

where are carbs digested

A

mouth - salivary amylase
(alpha1-4 stach)

duodenum - pancreatic amylase like in mouth

jejunum - everything else

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21
Q

are carbs digested in the stomach

A

NO

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22
Q

what are the main products of carb digestion

A

the monosaccharides
glucose
galactose
fructose

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23
Q

how is glucose absorbed

A

by the Na/glucose symporter - into epithelial cell

due to the Na/K pump maintaining the Na concentration gradient

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24
Q

how is glucose moved from epithelia cell to blood

A

via the GLUT2 uniporter

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25
how are galactose and fructose absorbed
galactose is similar to glucose fructose just uses GLUT5 channel protein down conc. gradient
26
what are cellulose and hemicellulose good for
food bulk - decrease transit time - aren't absorbed
27
what are oligosaccharides good for
not much farts increase transit diet - western diet
28
what is lactose intolerance problems
common disaccharides deficiency when people don't retain lactase activity is osmotically active means YOU GET THE SHITS
29
how do laxatives work
by using sugars that cant be metabolised - osmotically active so drains water and gives you the shits
30
what happens once glucose is adsorbed
``` in the blood to the liver slap on a phosphate group (glucose-6-phosphate) cant diffuse outside of cell ```
31
where is glucokinase located
liver high Km and Vmax so doesn't grab the glucose so other tissue can have it but will grab after meal
32
where is hexokinase located
all other cells | means can use up the glucose that comes its way
33
what is glycolysis | where
substrate level phosphorylation | cytoplasm
34
what happens to glycogen in liver
glycogen is broken down to glucose-6-phosphate then glucose 6-6 phosphatase removes the phosphate and you have free blood glucose when needed
35
what happens to glycogen in the skeletal muscle
glycogen broken down to Glucose-6-phosphate is then broken down to lactate via glycolysis
36
why is there no glucose 6- phosphatase in the skeletal muscle
don't want the glucose to diffuse out and not be used by the muscle
37
what is glycogenin
a enzyme that builds the primer for glycogen
38
how is glycogen formed
glycogenin used the glucose from UDP to form a prime chain of about 8 residues then Glycogen synthase takes over and extends the glucose chains (alpha1-4) after a while the chain is broken by glycogen branching enzymes and re attach via alpha1-6
39
what is UDP
uracil diphosphate | is the high vis vest that differentiates between the glucose to build the primers and the glucose for metabolism
40
what dose glycogen branching enzyme do
break the glucose chain | re attach at alpha1-6 more non reducing ends
41
how is glycogen degraded to mobilise the glucose
glycogen phosphorylase rereleased the glucose before the branch as glucose-1-phosphate debranching enzyme moves the rest of the glucose of that branch to the adjacent branch glucosidase then removes the final glucose breaking the alpha1-6 glycoside bond to release a free glucose
42
what are the 3 enzymes associated with the degradation of glycogen
glycogen phosphorylase de-branching enzyme glucosidase
43
is glycolysis a catabolic pathway
yes
44
how do RBCs make energy
glycolysis
45
where dose NAD come from
vitamins
46
NADH is
has energy!!!
47
what is redox balance
is the balance of NAD+ and NADH this is down to the formation of lactate to make NAD+ from NADH and step 6 - NAD to NADH
48
where is lactate produced
skeletal muscle erythrocytes
49
how many carbons are in glucose
6
50
how many carbons are in pyruvate
3 but you make 2 pyruvates per glucose
51
how many carbons are in pyruvate
3 but you make 2 pyruvates per glucose
52
what are the 3 fates for pyruvate the 2 human ones
anaerobic conditions the formation of lactate the formation of ethanol (reverse process when drinking) Acetyl CoA the 2 human ones are Acetyl CoA lactate
53
what is PEP
produced at the end of the 9th stage forms pyruvate
54
what is pyruvate kinase
phosphorylates PEP to form pyruvate exergonic reaction -ve delta G
55
what is the last six carbon compound in glycolysis
fructose-1,6- bisphosphate
56
what dose Fructose-1,6-biphosphate become
DHAP | G-3-P
57
what is produced during the second stage of glycolysis
4 X ATP and 2 X NADH
58
what dose DHAP turn in to
G-3-Preversible
59
how is gluconeogenesis controlled
by 4 reactions that bypass the irreversible reactions behind glycolysis
60
where do the first to reactions to and from Oxaloacetate why
A and B take place is the cytoplasm allows greater control
61
where are the second two reactions of gluconeogenesis carried out what do they do
in the mitochondria 'overcome' the initial two ATP and turn fructose-1,6-BP back into glucose
62
how is glucose traped in the cell after gluceno genis
traped in the endoplamic reticulum as this is where glucose-6-phosophotase is or just stays as glucose-6-phosphate
63
what dose the pentose phosphate path way do where is it
produces NADPH Mamary glands Red blood cells Liver - fatty acid synthesis produses Pentoses
64
in red blood cells what dose the pentose pathway produce
NADPH as ANTIOXIDANTS
65
what are pentoses
5 carbon sugars precursors of ATP RNA and DNA
66
what are the two phases of phases of the pentose phosphate cycle
the linear (IRRIVERSIBLE) oxidative phase cyclical (REVERSIBLE) nonoxidative phase
67
what dose the oxidative part do
generates NADPH | converts G-6-P to a pentose phosphate
68
what dose the non-oxidative part do
interconverts G-6-P and pentose phosphate forms lots of different 3,4,5,6 sugars
69
what is NADP+ NAD+ FAD+
electron carries | carrying electrons In covalent bonds
70
where is NAD+ used
in metabolism of sugars maintaining redox balance
71
where is NADP+ used
in anabolism to convert precursors to fatty acids acts as an axiocidant
72
what is Black water fever
a G-6-P dehydrogenase deficiency comes on after certain conditions fava beans I divicine haemolytic anaemia - due to low NADPH to combat hydrogen peroxide(free radicals) darkens urine
73
where dose the citric acid cycle occur
mitochondrial matrix
74
dose the citric acid cyle need O2 or produce ATP
NO
75
what dose the citric acid cycle do
removes electrons and makes NADH and FADH2
76
what is pyruvate dehydrogenase
its releatively FUCKING HUGHE | 3 copies of the enzyme bound together to make it fast
77
how is pyruvate dehydrogenase inhibited (dimmed)
by excess ATP, Acetyl CoA, NADH
78
what dose citrate inhibit if in excess
the first satge in glycolysis
79
where are the 3 points of control on the citric acid cycle
pyruvate dehydeoginace +/- isocitrate dehydrogenase +/- alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase only INHIBITED
80
citric acid cycle is amphilbolic what ds ethat mean
it serves both catabolic and anabolic pathways
81
what is a anaplerotic reaction
to fill up where pyruvate carboxylase makes ocaloaotate and that's nicked my the citric acid cycle
82
where dose the citric acid take place
in the matrix of the mitochondria
83
where do NADH and FADH2 need to be to be in the electron transport chain
in the mitochondrial matrix
84
what makes more ATP
NADH makes more than FADH2 | paying a price for glycerol shuttle
85
what is the glycerol shuttle
passing the electrons from NADH from glycolysis through the mitochondrial membrane to FADH2 to be used in the electron transport chain
86
what runs up the middle of complex 1 - iron-sulphur centres
iron-sulphur centres
87
what happens when NADH binds to complex 1
NADH is oxidised and gives over electrons these then pass through the centre where they form covalent links with ubiquinone to form ubiquinol pumps H+ ions into intermembrane space
88
what dose a reduced ubiquinone become
ubiquinol
89
what is the job of complex 2
the same as complex 1 however with FADH2 oxidises FADH2 and go up the iron-sulphur centres and bind to ubiquinone to make ubiquinol
90
what is different between complex 1 and complex 2
complex does not pump Hydrogen across the inner membrane into the intermembrane space
91
what is the other name for ubiquinone | what's its job
coenzyme Q10 acts as an antioxidant to capture electrons
92
what is the function of complex 3
to oxidise the ubiquinol and turn it back to ubiquinone and to add the electrons to cytochrome C pump protons(H+) across membrane
93
what happens when one QH2 (ubiquinol) molecule is oxidised
it yields 2 reduced cytochrome c molecules
94
what is the function of complex 4
to take the electrons from cytochrome c and pass them on to molecular oxygen pump protons/H+ ions across the membrane
95
what is different between the channel on complex 4 with the other channels
channel 4 has a Fe-Cu centre
96
how electrons passed from complex 3 to complex 4
via cytochrome C which travels through the intermembrane space
97
what is the proton gradient where is it
the electrical gradient and a chemical gradient created by the movement of H+ ions in the intermembrane space
98
what are the conditions inside the mitochondrial matrix
alkaline - fewer H+ negative
99
what is chemiosmosis what is the movement
the creation of a gradient by the movement of protons this is a vectoral movement
100
what is the proton motive force
the force that allows the release of energy due to their concentration gradient and example of a energy transfer from food potential energy to a chemical potential energy
101
what dose ATPase do
physically rotates like a turbine and a dam (with its potential energy) allows protons to flow down their concentration gradient
102
what are the two parts of ATP synthase | where are they located
F1 - protrudes into the mitochondrial matrix F0 - membrane bound connecting unit
103
what part of ATP synthase acts as the catalyst
F1
104
how many sub units make up F0
10
105
why dose FADH2 creates less ATP than NADH
as it pumps less protons across the inter-mitochondria membrane because it joins at complex 2 and miss out complex one
106
what is the electron transport chain said to be coupled to
ATP synthase
107
how many protons does it take to bind to F0 to crat 1 ATP
3
108
what happens when the inner mitochondria membrane is leaky
it means that ATP synthase and the electron transport chain are uncoupled
109
what happens if the electron transport chain and ATP synthase are uncoupled(un-intentionally coupled) what disease leads to the disease
protons leak back into the matrix and the electrons release their energy as heat malignant hyperthermia 40-45oC
110
what happens in intentional uncoupling of ATP synthase and mitochondria what is the protein called
brown fat in babies (brown due to the haem groups in complex) thermogenin
111
what is the step in F1 that requires the most energy
the realses of ATP from its enzyem
112
where on F1 do ADP and Pi bond
the beta subunits

Science For Medicine (17 decks)

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