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carbohydrates Flashcards

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1
Q

why are carbs one of the main food molecules

A

have high energy H atom associated electrons

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2
Q

what are monosaccharides

what are the 3 of them

A

the 6-C sugars

glucose
fructose
galactose
most common in diet

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3
Q

what are disaccharides

A

monomers linked by glyosidic bonds

the mirror images (anomeric are linked)

react with the anomeric carbon of another monosaccharide

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4
Q

what are the 3 important monosaccharides

A

maltose
lactose
sucrose

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5
Q

what’s a anomeric carbon

A

mirror image of each other

glucose forms a ring #1 carbon

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6
Q

what is maltose

A

not much from diet
break down of starch

it can be oxidised
is a reducing sugar

2 glucose bound together

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7
Q

what is lactose

A

main sugar in mike

formed by glyosidic bond between galactose and glucose

also a reducing sugar

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8
Q

sucrose

A

common table sugar
only made by plants
25% of diet

no C1 oxidation - is a non reducing sugar

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9
Q

what are polysaccharides

what are the 2 classes

A

lots of monomers bound together

homo-polysaccharides - one type of monomer

hetro-polysaccharides - multiple types of monomer

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10
Q

what is starch

A

polysaccharide

contains two types of glucose polymer

amylose
glycosidic bond - alpha 1-4
strait line

amylopectin
glycosidic bond - alpha1-6 every so often
makes the chain bent

THINK OF A HEXAGON

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11
Q

what are reducing ends

and non reducing ends

A

there are lots of non reducing ends

and not many reducing ends

REDUCING ENDS ARE GRANDA IN FAMILY TREE

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12
Q

what is glycogen

A

storage of glycose

using glucose alpha1-4 polymers then every 10 alpha1-6 which makes a new branch

means you can build up and break it down quickly

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13
Q

what is the structure of glycogen

A

so big can see with an electron microscope

form hydrated gels OSMOTICALLY INACTIVE

so many non-reducing ends so can build up and break down quickly

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14
Q

what are glycoproteins

what are the classes

A

proteins that have carbohydrates

GAGAs
proteoglycans
glycoproteins

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15
Q

what are GAGs

A

mucopolysaccharides

in mucus, synovial fluid
form unbranched polymers - form long stringy molecules

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16
Q

what are proteoglycans

A

more carbohydrate than protein

formed by covalently attaching proteins

cell surface, connective tissue

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17
Q

what are glycoproteins

A

more protein than carbohydrate

outer plasma membrane, connective tissue

similar role to proteoglycans

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18
Q

what are the diseases that are caused by GAGs problems

A

mucopolysaccharidoses
genetic disorder, loss of enzyme function, build up of protein

hurler syndrome

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19
Q

what are the carbs in our diet

A

starch

glycogen

cellulose/hemicellulose

oligosaccharides (alpha1-6 galactose)

lactose, sucrose, maltose

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20
Q

where are carbs digested

A

mouth - salivary amylase
(alpha1-4 stach)

duodenum - pancreatic amylase like in mouth

jejunum - everything else

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21
Q

are carbs digested in the stomach

A

NO

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22
Q

what are the main products of carb digestion

A

the monosaccharides
glucose
galactose
fructose

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23
Q

how is glucose absorbed

A

by the Na/glucose symporter - into epithelial cell

due to the Na/K pump maintaining the Na concentration gradient

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24
Q

how is glucose moved from epithelia cell to blood

A

via the GLUT2 uniporter

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25
Q

how are galactose and fructose absorbed

A

galactose is similar to glucose

fructose just uses GLUT5 channel protein down conc. gradient

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26
Q

what are cellulose and hemicellulose good for

A

food bulk - decrease transit time - aren’t absorbed

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27
Q

what are oligosaccharides good for

A

not much
farts
increase transit diet - western diet

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28
Q

what is lactose intolerance

problems

A

common disaccharides deficiency

when people don’t retain lactase activity

is osmotically active means YOU GET THE SHITS

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29
Q

how do laxatives work

A

by using sugars that cant be metabolised - osmotically active so drains water and gives you the shits

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30
Q

what happens once glucose is adsorbed

A 
in the blood 
to the liver 
slap on a phosphate group 
(glucose-6-phosphate)
cant diffuse outside of cell
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31
Q

where is glucokinase located

A

liver
high Km and Vmax
so doesn’t grab the glucose so other tissue can have it

but will grab after meal

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32
Q

where is hexokinase located

A

all other cells

means can use up the glucose that comes its way

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33
Q

what is glycolysis

where

A

substrate level phosphorylation

cytoplasm

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34
Q

what happens to glycogen in liver

A

glycogen is broken down to glucose-6-phosphate

then glucose 6-6 phosphatase removes the phosphate and you have free blood glucose when needed

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35
Q

what happens to glycogen in the skeletal muscle

A

glycogen broken down to Glucose-6-phosphate

is then broken down to lactate via glycolysis

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36
Q

why is there no glucose 6- phosphatase in the skeletal muscle

A

don’t want the glucose to diffuse out and not be used by the muscle

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37
Q

what is glycogenin

A

a enzyme that builds the primer for glycogen

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38
Q

how is glycogen formed

A

glycogenin used the glucose from UDP to form a prime chain of about 8 residues

then Glycogen synthase takes over and extends the glucose chains (alpha1-4)

after a while the chain is broken by glycogen branching enzymes and re attach via alpha1-6

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39
Q

what is UDP

A

uracil diphosphate

is the high vis vest that differentiates between the glucose to build the primers and the glucose for metabolism

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40
Q

what dose glycogen branching enzyme do

A

break the glucose chain

re attach at alpha1-6 more non reducing ends

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41
Q

how is glycogen degraded to mobilise the glucose

A

glycogen phosphorylase rereleased the glucose before the branch as glucose-1-phosphate

debranching enzyme moves the rest of the glucose of that branch to the adjacent branch

glucosidase then removes the final glucose breaking the alpha1-6 glycoside bond to release a free glucose

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42
Q

what are the 3 enzymes associated with the degradation of glycogen

A

glycogen phosphorylase
de-branching enzyme
glucosidase

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43
Q

is glycolysis a catabolic pathway

A

yes

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44
Q

how do RBCs make energy

A

glycolysis

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45
Q

where dose NAD come from

A

vitamins

46
Q

NADH is

A

has energy!!!

47
Q

what is redox balance

A

is the balance of NAD+ and NADH

this is down to the formation of lactate to make NAD+ from NADH

and step 6 - NAD to NADH

48
Q

where is lactate produced

A

skeletal muscle erythrocytes

49
Q

how many carbons are in glucose

A

6

50
Q

how many carbons are in pyruvate

A

3

but you make 2 pyruvates per glucose

51
Q

how many carbons are in pyruvate

A

3

but you make 2 pyruvates per glucose

52
Q

what are the 3 fates for pyruvate

the 2 human ones

A

anaerobic conditions
the formation of lactate

the formation of ethanol
(reverse process when drinking)

Acetyl CoA

the 2 human ones are
Acetyl CoA
lactate

53
Q

what is PEP

A

produced at the end of the 9th stage

forms pyruvate

54
Q

what is pyruvate kinase

A

phosphorylates PEP to form pyruvate

exergonic reaction
-ve delta G

55
Q

what is the last six carbon compound in glycolysis

A

fructose-1,6- bisphosphate

56
Q

what dose Fructose-1,6-biphosphate become

A

DHAP

G-3-P

57
Q

what is produced during the second stage of glycolysis

A

4 X ATP and 2 X NADH

58
Q

what dose DHAP turn in to

A

G-3-Preversible

59
Q

how is gluconeogenesis controlled

A

by 4 reactions that bypass the irreversible reactions behind glycolysis

60
Q

where do the first to reactions to and from Oxaloacetate

why

A

A and B take place is the cytoplasm

allows greater control

61
Q

where are the second two reactions of gluconeogenesis carried out

what do they do

A

in the mitochondria

‘overcome’ the initial two ATP and turn fructose-1,6-BP back into glucose

62
Q

how is glucose traped in the cell after gluceno genis

A

traped in the endoplamic reticulum as this is where glucose-6-phosophotase is

or just stays as glucose-6-phosphate

63
Q

what dose the pentose phosphate path way do

where is it

A

produces NADPH
Mamary glands
Red blood cells
Liver - fatty acid synthesis

produses Pentoses

64
Q

in red blood cells what dose the pentose pathway produce

A

NADPH as ANTIOXIDANTS

65
Q

what are pentoses

A

5 carbon sugars
precursors of ATP
RNA and DNA

66
Q

what are the two phases of phases of the pentose phosphate cycle

A

the linear (IRRIVERSIBLE) oxidative phase

cyclical (REVERSIBLE) nonoxidative phase

67
Q

what dose the oxidative part do

A

generates NADPH

converts G-6-P to a pentose phosphate

68
Q

what dose the non-oxidative part do

A

interconverts G-6-P and pentose phosphate

forms lots of different 3,4,5,6 sugars

69
Q

what is NADP+
NAD+
FAD+

A

electron carries

carrying electrons In covalent bonds

70
Q

where is NAD+ used

A

in metabolism of sugars maintaining redox balance

71
Q

where is NADP+ used

A

in anabolism to convert precursors to fatty acids

acts as an axiocidant

72
Q

what is Black water fever

A

a G-6-P dehydrogenase deficiency

comes on after certain conditions
fava beans I divicine

haemolytic anaemia - due to low NADPH to combat hydrogen peroxide(free radicals)

darkens urine

73
Q

where dose the citric acid cycle occur

A

mitochondrial matrix

74
Q

dose the citric acid cyle need O2 or produce ATP

A

NO

75
Q

what dose the citric acid cycle do

A

removes electrons and makes NADH and FADH2

76
Q

what is pyruvate dehydrogenase

A

its releatively FUCKING HUGHE

3 copies of the enzyme bound together to make it fast

77
Q

how is pyruvate dehydrogenase inhibited (dimmed)

A

by excess ATP, Acetyl CoA, NADH

78
Q

what dose citrate inhibit if in excess

A

the first satge in glycolysis

79
Q

where are the 3 points of control on the citric acid cycle

A

pyruvate dehydeoginace +/-

isocitrate dehydrogenase +/-
alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase only INHIBITED

80
Q

citric acid cycle is amphilbolic what ds ethat mean

A

it serves both catabolic and anabolic pathways

81
Q

what is a anaplerotic reaction

A

to fill up where pyruvate carboxylase makes ocaloaotate and that’s nicked my the citric acid cycle

82
Q

where dose the citric acid take place

A

in the matrix of the mitochondria

83
Q

where do NADH and FADH2 need to be to be in the electron transport chain

A

in the mitochondrial matrix

84
Q

what makes more ATP

A

NADH makes more than FADH2

paying a price for glycerol shuttle

85
Q

what is the glycerol shuttle

A

passing the electrons from NADH from glycolysis through the mitochondrial membrane to FADH2 to be used in the electron transport chain

86
Q

what runs up the middle of complex 1 - iron-sulphur centres

A

iron-sulphur centres

87
Q

what happens when NADH binds to complex 1

A

NADH is oxidised and gives over electrons these then pass through the centre where they form covalent links with ubiquinone to form ubiquinol

pumps H+ ions into intermembrane space

88
Q

what dose a reduced ubiquinone become

A

ubiquinol

89
Q

what is the job of complex 2

A

the same as complex 1 however with FADH2

oxidises FADH2 and go up the iron-sulphur centres and bind to ubiquinone to make
ubiquinol

90
Q

what is different between complex 1 and complex 2

A

complex does not pump Hydrogen across the inner membrane into the intermembrane space

91
Q

what is the other name for ubiquinone

what’s its job

A

coenzyme Q10
acts as an antioxidant
to capture electrons

92
Q

what is the function of complex 3

A

to oxidise the ubiquinol and turn it back to ubiquinone

and to add the electrons to cytochrome C

pump protons(H+) across membrane

93
Q

what happens when one QH2 (ubiquinol) molecule is oxidised

A

it yields 2 reduced cytochrome c molecules

94
Q

what is the function of complex 4

A

to take the electrons from cytochrome c and pass them on to molecular oxygen

pump protons/H+ ions across the membrane

95
Q

what is different between the channel on complex 4 with the other channels

A

channel 4 has a Fe-Cu centre

96
Q

how electrons passed from complex 3 to complex 4

A

via cytochrome C which travels through the intermembrane space

97
Q

what is the proton gradient

where is it

A

the electrical gradient
and a chemical gradient created by the movement of H+ ions

in the intermembrane space

98
Q

what are the conditions inside the mitochondrial matrix

A

alkaline - fewer H+

negative

99
Q

what is chemiosmosis

what is the movement

A

the creation of a gradient by the movement of protons

this is a vectoral movement

100
Q

what is the proton motive force

A

the force that allows the release of energy due to their concentration gradient

and example of a energy transfer from food potential energy to a chemical potential energy

101
Q

what dose ATPase do

A

physically rotates like a turbine and a dam (with its potential energy)

allows protons to flow down their concentration gradient

102
Q

what are the two parts of ATP synthase

where are they located

A

F1 - protrudes into the mitochondrial matrix

F0 - membrane bound connecting unit

103
Q

what part of ATP synthase acts as the catalyst

A

F1

104
Q

how many sub units make up F0

A

10

105
Q

why dose FADH2 creates less ATP than NADH

A

as it pumps less protons across the inter-mitochondria membrane

because it joins at complex 2 and miss out complex one

106
Q

what is the electron transport chain said to be coupled to

A

ATP synthase

107
Q

how many protons does it take to bind to F0 to crat 1 ATP

A

3

108
Q

what happens when the inner mitochondria membrane is leaky

A

it means that ATP synthase and the electron transport chain are uncoupled

109
Q

what happens if the electron transport chain and ATP synthase are uncoupled(un-intentionally coupled)

what disease leads to the disease

A

protons leak back into the matrix and the electrons release their energy as heat

malignant hyperthermia 40-45oC

110
Q

what happens in intentional uncoupling of ATP synthase and mitochondria

what is the protein called

A

brown fat in babies (brown due to the haem groups in complex)

thermogenin

111
Q

what is the step in F1 that requires the most energy

A

the realses of ATP from its enzyem

112
Q

where on F1 do ADP and Pi bond

A

the beta subunits

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