Cancer and Nursing Care

Question 1

What is cancer staging?

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 1

The process to assess the extent to which the tumour has developed.

Question 2

What is TNM?

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 2

• stands for Tumour, Node, Metastasis

T refers to the size and extent of the main tumor

N refers to the number of nearby lymph nodes that have cancer.

M refers to whether the cancer has metastasized- spread from the primary tumor to other parts of the body.

• internationally recognised cancer staging system

Question 3

What is metastasis?

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 3

• measure of the spread of the cancer

Question 4

Describe ‘In situ’ in relation to the staging of cancer.

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 4

abnormal cells are present and have not spread to nearby tissue

Question 5

Descrive ‘localised’ in relation to the staging of cancer.

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 5

• cancer is limited to the place where it started
• has no sign of spreading

Question 6

Describe ‘distant’ in relation to the staging of cancer.

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 6

• cancer has spread to distant parts of the body

Question 7

Describe ‘unknown’ in relation to the staging of cancer.

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 7

• not enough infomration to figure out the stage if tumour development

Question 8

What are the two ways a cell can become cancerous?

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 8

• epigentic alterations: changes in DNA methylation or acetylation and gene expression
• genetic alterations: DNA mutation and faulty protein formation- impacts cell division

Question 9

Name some mutations that affect genes and whole chromosomes.

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 9

• frame shift
• non-sense
• mis-sense
• translocation
• inversion
• insertion
• deletion
• amplification

Question 10

What are the 8 hallmarks of cancer?

(The traits that characterise cancer cells)

(Hanahan, 2000)

Answer 10

• Promote their own growth signals, increasing rapidly and uncontrollably
• override mechanisms that regulate cell growth and dividion
• resist apoptosis allowing them to survive and accumulate genetic mutations
• replicative immortality meaning they divide indefinetely
• stimulate angiogenesis to supply nutrients and oxygen, promoting tumor growth and metastasis.
• able to metastasise- spread to surrounding tissues and distant sites
• reporgramming energy metabolism to support their own growth e.g. increased glucose uptake
• evading immune detection and destruction

Question 11

How does cancer metastasise?

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 11

• cancer cells break away from the main tumor and spread around the body via different mechanisms e.g. lymphaitc system, cardivascular system, local invasion
• can spread to almost every part of the body but more commonly bone, liver, lungs, and brain.
• less common to see spread to the skin, muscle, or other organs

Question 12

List some treatment options for cancer.

(Vickers, 2018)

Answer 12

• surgery
• radiotherapy
• cytotoxic chemo
• angiogenesis inhibitors
• hormone therapy

Question 13

What is chemotherapy?

(Vickers, 2018)

Answer 13

treatment that involces using drugs to kill cancer cells

Question 14

What drugs are used in chemotherapy and why?

(Vickers, 2018)

Answer 14

• cytotoxic drugs- because they are toxic to cells, especially those that are fast growing
• administered IV or orally

Question 15

What factors must be considered before beginning chemotherapy?

(Vickers, 2018)

Answer 15

• stage of cancer
• overall health
• treatment goals

Question 16

Why would cytotoxic chemotherapy be selected as a form of treatment?

(Vickers, 2018)

Answer 16

• designed to target and destory rapdily dividing cells
• these drugs interfere with the multiplying of cancerous cells
• this stops the spread and skrinks the tumour

Question 17

Contradictions of cytotoxic chemotherapy.

(Vickers, 2018)

Answer 17

• chemo affects healthy cells in your body also e.g. bone marrow, digestive system
• especially fast growing cells e.g. hair follicles

Question 18

What is the role of the nurse when their patient undergoes chemotherapy?

(Yates, 2020)

Answer 18

• educate
• monitor
• manage pain
• assess
• administer
• support

Question 19

In describing the physiology and physiopathy of cancer, what must be mentioned?

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 19

• physiology of normal cells compared to cancer cells
• hallmarks of cancer
• tumour microenvironment- the tumor isnt just a group of cancer cells but has its own environment of extracellular matrix, infiltrating and resident host cells and secreted factors
• metastasis

Question 20

Define carcinoma.

(Cook, et al, 2021)

Answer 20

malignant tumour originating from epithelial tissue lining

Question 21

What is acute pain?

(Howarth, 2019)

Answer 21

• pain arises from an injury
• typically considered to last for less to 12 weeks
• the pain will subside after the individual begins to recover from the injury or disease

Question 22

What is chronic pain?

(Howarth, 2019)

Answer 22

• complex
• defintions differ, lasts more than 12 weeks or 6 months
• pain that persists after normal time of healing of underlying disease or injury

Question 23

How is chronic pain assessed?

(Howarth, 2019)

Answer 23

• intensity of the pain
• effect it is having on individuals quality of life
• emotional effects involved
• pain assessment tools e.g. Abbey pain scale, faces, etc.
• important to consider factors that infulence how individuals respond to pain in different ways- e.g. age, gender, race

Question 24

How is chronic pain managed?

(Howarth, 2019)

Answer 24

• analgesics
• nerve blocks
• electrical nerve and spinal cord stimulation
• management programmes- including psychological CBT, acceptance and commitment therapy
• physical activity and exercise

Question 25

List some references for cancer and nursing care.

Answer 25

• (Cook et al, 2021)
• (Howarth, 2019)
• (Vickers, 2018)
• (Hanahan, 2000)