C8: Current Trends Flashcards
studies the properties and functions of cells, the basic
unit of life, and their composition, replication, and interaction with their environment
Cell biology
focuses on studying whole organisms and their interactions within populations (a “top-down” approach), and
molecular biology examines the components of living things (a “bottom-up” approach)
Traditional biology
is a branch of biochemistry that studies the chemistry of molecules connected to living processes, with a particular focus on nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins, which are created using genetic instructions.
Molecular biology
is a major DNA-based tool that allows genes or multiple genes to be identified, cut, and inserted into a genome of another organism.
Recombinant DNA Technology
In 1972, ___ produced the first recombinant DNA molecule. He joined DNA fragments from two different viruses using restriction enzymes and ligase.
Paul Berg
1973, ____ and ____ engineered the first organism to contain a recombinant DNA. They introduced an antibiotic resistance gene to E. coli.
Herb Boyer; Stanley Cohen
Herb Boyer’s company called __ successfully produced the first recombinant DNA drug in 1978: ___
Genetech; Human insulin
Tools for rDNA Technology (4)
Vector
restriction enzyme
ligation enzyme
host
refers to a DNA molecule which introduces the desired DNA to be insert into a host cell.
.
Vector
Examples are plasmids, viruses, and yeast cells. Escherichia coli plasmids are one the most common
vector
this enzyme is responsible for cleaving
DNA sequences at sequence-specific sites, producing DNA fragments with a known sequence at each end
Restriction enzyme
An example of a restriction enzyme is ___, a kind that cuts straight through the DNA strands.
Smal
these are joining enzymes that glue together fragments of newly synthesized DNA to form a seamless strand.
Ligation enzymes
refers to the organism where the recombinant plasmid is inserted into, copy the vector DNA along with their own DNA, creating multiple copies of the inserted DNA.
Host
____ is a newly synthesized rDNA insulin which is known to be more effective and fast-acting in comparison with the first human insulin Humulin
Lispro or Humalog
A unique and well-known recombinant protein called __ was also produced that may be utilized to effectively treat anemia.
Epoetin alfa
is one of the biggest research in genetic manipulation employing the principles of rDNA technology.
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats or CRISPR
It enables geneticists and medical researchers to specifically target gene destruction in human cells, as well as edit parts of the genome by removing, adding or altering sections of the DNA sequence.
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats or CRISPR
USES OF rDNA TECHNOLOGY (7)
Recombinant Chymosin
Recombinant Huaman Insulin
Recombinant Human Growth Hormone (HGH, somatotropin)
Recombinant Blood Clotting Factor VIII
Golden Rice
Herbicide-resistant Crops
Insecticide-resistant Crops
is a protease found in rennet, a complex set of enzymes in the digestive system of ruminants.
Chymosin
Chymosin breaks down ___, a protein found in milk.
casein
is used to manufacture cheese. It was the first genetically engineered food additive used commercially.
Chymosin
Three of the most used microbes for cheese production are
Aspergillus niger, Kluyveromices lactis and Escherichia coli
is a hormone released by pancreatic cells to liver cells for blood sugar level regulations.
Insulin
is released by the pituitary gland that is responsible for regulating growth and development of an organism.
Human growth hormone
solution was made by the use of therapeutic HGH derived from pituitary glands of cadavers. However, the patients have developed ___.
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
is a protein produced by liver cells and endothelial cells of the liver, responsible for blood coagulation.
Blood-Clotting Factor VIII
The gene for factor VIII is located at the ___; . A defect in this gene causes ___, a blood coagulation disorder characterized by excessive bleeding internally and externally.
X-chromosome;Hemophilia
golden rice has modified genes for synthesizing ___, a precursor of vitamin A.
betacarotene
A wide variety of important agricultural crops like soy, maize, and cotton have been incorporated with a recombinant gene that results in their resistance to ___.
herbicide glyphosate
__ is a bacterium that can synthesize a protein (Bt toxin) causing resistance to insecticidal properties.
Bacillus thuringiensis
This bacterium was used in agriculture as an insect-control strategy for many generations.
Bacillus thuringiensis
is a process of creating a copy or many copies of a single fragment of DNA
Gene cloning
This is done through the insertion of a DNA fragment into a small DNA molecule and then allowing this to replicate inside a living cell such as a bacterium.
Gene cloning
In Gene cloning, The small replicating molecule is called a ____ Plasmids, viruses, and yeast cells are the most common
DNA vector (carrier).
is another way of creating multiple copies of a specific section of DNA without the need for vectors
Polymerase chain reaction
Here, the template strand is mixed with two 20 base pairs primers complementary to the template DNA, nucleotides, and a version of DNA polymerase known as ____.
PCR; Taq polymerase
Three steps of PCR involves: .
denaturation, primer annealing, and extension
Is a large collection of cloned DNA sequences from a single genome.
Gene library
A ___ is a collection of at least one copy of the DNA sequences in an organism’s genome.
genomic library
A _______ contains DNA prepared from the mRNA present in a given cell population using the enzymes ____, which produces single stranded DNA from mRNA, and DNA polymerase which converts single-stranded DNA to double-stranded DNA.
complementary DNA (cDNA) library; reverse transcriptase
This library can also be prepared using reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR).
complementary DNA (cDNA) library
THE IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF GENES AND GENE PRODUCTS (4)
Southern Blotting
Northern Blotting
Western Blotting
DNA Sequencing
is a natural genetic mechanism in plants and animals. They protect cellular machinery from viruses and foreign genetic material. It can silence specific genes, making it a valuable research tool in biotechnology and next-generation medical therapies.
RNA interference
The RNA interference contains unique segments known as _____, which have nucleotide sequences complementary to the targeted RNA strand.
small interfering RNA strands (siRNA)
is a regulatory system in eukaryotic cells that controls gene activity. It mainly functions to silence or deactivate genes.
RNA interference (RNAi)
the silencing ability of RNAi was discovered by American scientists ________ who shared the 2006 Nobel Prize for physiological or medicine.
Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello
RNAi was also known by other names such as (3)
quelling, posttranscriptional gene silencing (PTGS), and co-suppression.
The enzyme ____ starts the RNAi pathway, which is present in many eukaryotes, including animals.
dicer
breaks large doublestranded RNA molecules into short double-stranded fragments of 21 nucleotides called siRNAs.
Dicer
The ____ and the ____ are the two single-stranded RNAs (ssRNAs) that are formed when each siRNA unwinds.
passenger strand; guide strand
these genes can have their activity suppressed by cells through an innate mechanism called RNAi.
transposons, or “jumping genes”,
occurs when RNA sequences inhibit the production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in retinal cells, causing excess growth of blood vessels and vision loss.
Macular degeneration
involves the manipulation and manufacturing of materials and devices on the scale of atoms or small groups of atoms.
Nanotechnology
is a branch of medical science that applies biological and physiological principles to clinical practice.
Biomedicine
With advances in molecular biology, much diagnostic work now focuses on detecting specific biological “signatures.” These analyses are referred to as
bioassays
Semiconductor scientists concur that because of quantum effects like “tunneling,” in which electrons deviate from their intended circuit path and cause atomic-scale interference between devices, the continual decrease in “conventional” electronic devices will inevitably approach fundamental limits.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
The use of molecules for electronic devices was suggested by ___ of Northwestern University and Avi Aviram of IBM as early as the 1970s, but proper nanotechnology tools did not become available until the turn of the 21st century
Mark Ratner
Carbon nanotubes have remarkable electronic, mechanical, and chemical properties. Depending on their specific diameter and the bonding arrangement of their carbon atoms, nanotubes exhibit either metallic or semiconducting behaviour.
NANOTUBES AND NANOWIRES
The energy required to add an electron to a small island at nanoscale scales is crucial for .
single-electron transistors
These devices are easily realizable at low temperatures, but roomtemperature applications require a drastic reduction in size to achieve steady operation.
single-electron transistors
is an emerging field that uses spin and electrical charge to conduct logic operations on carriers. It focuses on the injection, transit, and detection of spin-polarized carriers, the nanoscale structure and electrical characteristics of ferromagnetic-semiconductor interfaces.
Spintronics
Current ____ methods include high-density, highspeed electronic memories, magnetic and optical discs, and nanotechnology.
information storage
a commercial development, uses nanometre thick magnetic layers and nonvolatile memory, requiring minimal evolution from conventional semiconductor manufacturing
Magnetic randomaccess memory (MRAM),
Nanoscale structuring of optical devices,
including VCSELS,
quantum dot lasers, and photonic crystal materials, is advancing ___ technology
communications
involves scaling down existing technologies or creating sophisticated molecular devices atom by atom
Nanofabrication
____ methods are best for nanoscale assembly, while ____ methods produce long-range structures and macroscopic connections. New fabrication and measuring technologies are needed.
Bottomup; top-down
The most common top-down approach to fabrication involves ____ using short-wavelength optical sources.
lithographic patterning techniques
A key advantage of the ___ approach-as developed in the fabrication of integrated circuits-is that the parts are both patterned and built in place, so that no assembly step is needed.
top- down
___ uses chemical or physical forces to assemble basic units into larger structures, providing a complementary method to top-down techniques.
Bottom-up nanofabrication
