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NMSK > Brain > Flashcards

Brain Flashcards

1
Q

Identify 1-7 and distinguish which is Grey matter and which is white

A

Grey Matter
1. Cerebral Cortex (neocortex)
2. Cingulate Gyrus
3. Basal Ganglia: Caudate Nucleus
White Matter
4. Cerebral White Matter
5. Corpus Callosum
6. Internal Capsules
7. Ventricles - Lateral Ventricles

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2
Q

Where has this transection been taken from?

A

The cerebral hemisphere of the telencephalon

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3
Q

Identify structures 1-7 and distinguish between the grey and white matter

A

Grey Matter
1. Cerebral Cortex (neocortex)
2. Cingulate Gyrus
White Matter
3. Corpus Callosum
4. Internal Capsules
5. Ventricles - Lateral Ventricles
6. Rhinencephalon - Hippocampus
7. Rhinencephalon - Fornix

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4
Q

What main features does this transection include?
What structure is 1-7 located in?
What structure is 8-12 located in?

A

Mamillary Nucleus + Piriform Lobe

The cerebral hemisphere of the telencephalon

Diencephalon

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5
Q

Identify structures 8-12

A
  1. Thalamus
  2. Interthalamic Adhesion
  3. Hypothalamus
  4. Mamillary Body
  5. Third Ventricle
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6
Q

Identify structures 1-8

A
  1. Cerebral cortex (neocortex)
  2. Cerebral white matter
  3. Ventricles - Lateral Ventricles
  4. Rhinencephalon - Hippocampus
  5. Hippocampus
  6. Medial Geniculate Nucleus
  7. Brachium of Rostral Colliculus
  8. Mesencephalon (midbrain)
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7
Q

What main features does this transection include?
What structure is 1-5 located in?
What structure is 5-7 located in?
What structure is 8 located in?

A

Oculomotor Nucleus and Red Nucleus

The cerebral hemisphere of the telencephalon

Diencephalon

Mesencephalon

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8
Q

Identify structures 1-4

A
  1. Cerebral Cortex (neocortex)
  2. Cerebral White Matter
  3. Mesencephalon (midbrain)
  4. Metencephalon (hindbrain)
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9
Q

What main features does this transection include?
What structure is 1-5 located in?
What structure is 5-7 located in?
What structure is 8 located in?

A

Caudal Colliculus and Pons

Telencephalon

Mesencephalon

Metecephalon

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10
Q

Identify structure 1

A
  1. Mesencephalon (midbrain) – cerebellum
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11
Q

Identify structures 2-12

A
  1. fourth ventricle
  2. lateral recess & foramen choroid plexus
  3. pyramidal tract
  4. medial lemniscus
  5. facial nucleus
  6. spinal tract of V
  7. nucleus of spinal tract of V
  8. caudal cerebellar peduncle
  9. vestibular nuclei (medial + lateral)
  10. reticular formation
  11. Cranial nerve - glossopharyngeal/vagus n.
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12
Q

What main features does this transection include?
What structure is 1 located in?
What structure is 2-12 located in?

A

Facial Nucleus

Metencephalon

Myelencephalon

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13
Q

Identify structures 1-4

A
  1. Central Canal
    Grey Matter
  2. Dorsal Horn
  3. Ventral Horn
    White Matter
  4. White Matter
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14
Q

What main features does this transection include?
What structure is 1-4 located in?

A

Spinal cord segment (C-2)

Central Canal

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15
Q

What takes in visual information taken?

What is it made of and what is the key component?

A

At the retina

Several layers - the key component being the photoreceptors

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16
Q

What are photoreceptors?

A

Bits of information telling you if light is being received or not

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17
Q

When visual information is taken in what path does it take to reach the association cortex of the brain?

A

Photoreceptors in retina take in information, this moves through the retina into thee visual pathways, it then reaches the occipital cortex/visual cortex, once it has reached here it moves to the association cortex

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18
Q

What are the 3 most basic layers in the retina and what occurs at them?

A
  1. Ganglion cells (produce a white matter tract - optic nerve - that transmits info to the brain)
  2. Bipolar cells, Amacrine cells, Horizontal cells (allows processing to occur at retina before transmission to the cortex a the cells connect the photoreceptors to each other)
  3. Photoreceptors (converting a photon of energy into membrane depolarisation and action potential)
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19
Q

what are the names give to the relationships at the receptor level and the ganglion cell layer?

A

one-one relationship

multimodal relationship

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20
Q

What are the three kinds of ganglion cells that can appear when light is shone on them?

A

Small field/area
Large field/area
Lateral inhibition

21
Q

Where are you most likely to find small and large field ganglion cells in the retina?

A

Small area = centre of the retina as this is where acute vision is required
Large area = peripheral of the retina

22
Q

What happens to lateral inhibition ganglion cells when light is shone on them?

A

If the light is shone on the centre of the cell it increases the no. of impulses in the cell
If the light is shone on the periphery of the cell it inhibits impulses in that cell

23
Q

What is the purpose of lateral inhibition?

A

It allows you to differentiate edges and corners improving the localisation of your vision
(retina can differentiate boundaries between light sources)

24
Q

When do ganglion cell fire off when stimulus is applied?

A

Sustained - 80%
= fire off for the entire duration of the stimulus
Transient - 20%
= some will fire off when the stimulus is turned on and some will fire off when the stimulus is turned off

(builds complexity to help identify what we see - cats have 23 different modes of ganglion cells)

25
Q

What is the lateral geniculate nucleus?

A

A relay box for the information received from the optic nerve, is gated so that if the brain needs power somewhere else it can stop sending vision signal to the brain

26
Q

What is another name given to the visual cortex in the brain?

A

Brodman’s areas 17-19

27
Q

Once information has travelled through the lateral geniculate nucleus what does it then travel through and what is it’s destination at the end of this next step?

A

It travels through the optic radiations into the visual cortex/brodmans area 17

28
Q

What in the visual cortex connects to ganglion cells and when they receive information from the ganglion cells what happens?

A

Pyramidal cells - information received is further integrated and then transmitted to the association cortex

29
Q

What are the 3 different types of cells found in Brodmans area 17 and what are their functions?

A

Simple cells - mapped out with spot of light
Complex cells - responds to bars of light or edge specific orientation
Hypercomplex cells - bar of light must by correct length

30
Q

What colours do rods and cones pick up on and which is more sensitive?

A

Rods (sensitive) = black ad white
Cones = 3 colour cones of red, green and blue

31
Q

What causes seizures and what are the common signs?

A

Cortical dysfunction
Unaware of surrounding, limbs rigid or paddling, snorting, hyper salivating, loss of bowel control and urination

32
Q

What are seizures?

A

Brain composed of network of neuron’s, during seizure there is abnormal activity in a group of brain cells causing them to fire off randomly

33
Q

What is epilepsy?

A

A disease of the brain where multiple seizers occur during 24 hours, not just the one.

34
Q

What are convulsions and do they occur during seizures?

A

These are not the same as seizures, they are sudden violent motor activity of the cerebral part of the brain or the brainstem.
They are not cause by electrical cerebral discharge so not all epileptic seizures cause convulsions.

35
Q

When electrical activity in the brain is measured what can a sudden spike in the waveforms represent?

A

This is characteristic for a seizure or epileptic fit

36
Q

What are the 5 different types of epilepsy?

A
  • focal
  • generalised
  • idiopathic
  • structural
  • unknown
37
Q

What is the most common type of seizures in dogs?

A

Idiopathic

38
Q

What are idiopathic seizures?

What are structural seizures?

A

Seizures with an unknown cause, could potentially be a genetic link, no structural cause

Caused by structural in the intracranial/cerebral part of the brain that should not be there like tumours. (often cannot find the cause so assumed as idiopathic)

39
Q

What are some causes to structural seizures (do not need to know all)?

A

Vascular (stroke or bleed on brain)
Inflammatory/inflammation
Traumatic
Anomalous/developmental
Neoplastic
Degenerative diseases confirmed by diagnostic imaging

40
Q

What are the 4 predictable patterns found in seizures (in order), give a brief summary of each

A

Prodrome - few days before seizures changes can be sensed
Pre-ictus - seizure can be identified before occurring (dog hyper salivating), initial start point before activity propagates to rest of brain
Ictus - seizure activity, lack of conciseness, long or short (most few minutes)
Post-ictus - seizure stops but animal takes time to go back to normal, can be long or short period

41
Q

What is the difference between focal and generalised seizures?

A

Focal = 1 side of the brain
Generalised = both sides of the brain
(generalised could start as a focal that spread)

42
Q

What is status epileptics (SE)?

A

Neurological emergency
Continuous epileptic seizure lasting >5 minutes, or two without full regain of consciousness

43
Q

What are the 3 ways in which seizures can be treated?

A

Overall aim is to increase inhibition

  1. alter intrinsic membrane properties, primarily Na+ channels
  2. Increase inhibitory transmitter function, primarily in the GABA system
  3. decrease excitatory transmitter function, primarily in the glutamate system
44
Q

When treating seizures what do first line drugs often act on?

What type of seizure is usually treated to suppress seizures?

A

GABA A channels - chlorine receptors

Idiopathic as if you don’t know the cause you can’t treat the cause to cure, so instead they try to suppress the seizures

45
Q

How do seizure suppressing drugs work?

A

Neuronal membranes are polarised due to the transport and selective passage of electrolytes.
Seizure caused by uncontrolled depolarisation of nerve cells.
The drugs alter the passage of electrolytes to produce hyper polarisation of the membrane which males it much harder to depolarise stopping seizure activity.

46
Q

When treating seizure how is drug dose worked out?

What is a major factor as to whether these drugs work that the owner must take into account?

A

Trail and error, all animals have different levels of depolarisation occurring so the level in blood, number of seizures and side effects after a couple weeks of administration are explored.

Diet. Some drugs affect the chloride channels so sodium chloride must be avoided.

47
Q

What’s the difference between intra- and extra-cranial causes of seizures?

A

Intra-cranial causes originate in the brain

Extra-cranial causes originate elsewhere in the body but still affect the brain

48
Q

What are the two most commonly used anti-epileptic drugs and what are their mechanism of action?

A

Phenobarbital - Acts on GABAA receptors, increases synaptic inhibition and can also inhibit calcium channels

Potassium bromide - Hyper polarises neurones via the movement of the bromide ions intracellularly through the chloride channels

49
Q

What are the two most commonly used anti-epileptic drugs?

What are their half-lives?

What are their approximate times to steady state (when the amount of drug being absorbed is the same as the amount leaving the body, concentration of drug at constant)?

Are they 1st or 2nd line treatments?

A

Phenobarbital
- 54-72 hours
- 2-3 weeks after initiation of drug
- first line

Potassium bromide
- more than 20 days
- 4 months in dogs, 6 weeks in cats
- first line

NMSK (12 decks)

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