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Blood structure and function Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the functions of blood?

A
  • it transports oxygen from lungs to tissues
  • transports carbon dioxide(waste product of respiration) from tissues to lungs
  • transports nutrients from digestive organs to cells (which are absorbed from in intestine)
  • transports waste products from cells to kidneys, lungs and sweat glands (where they are destroyed) - e.g amine groups with nitrogen which turn into ammonia which is toxic which then converts to urea which is safe and filtered by kidney and excrete as urine.
  • transports hormones from endocrine glands
  • regulates body pH
  • regulates body temp
  • regulates water content of cells
  • prevents body fluid loss
  • protects against toxins and microbes
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2
Q

What is blood?

A

-it is not a homogenous substance (not made of only one thing)
(It is a transport system
without it our cells wouldn’t survive (it protects))
-transport system for waste products as well.

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3
Q

How is blood tested to not be homogenous?

A
  • Withdraw blood from body
  • Add some substance (heporin)
  • put in test tube and spin at high speeds in a centrifuge
  • heavy bits deposit at bottom of tube and light at top
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4
Q

What are the 2 layers which the blood seperates out to?

A
  • Blood plasma (55% of blood)- mostly water

- Red blood cells (Erthrocytes)- 45%

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5
Q

What is a haematocrit?

A
  • blood is separated out into its components from spinning at high speeds in a centrifuge
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6
Q

What is the other layer which seperates the blood plasma and erthrocytes?

A

small thin white layer known as a Buffy coat

-made of white blood cells

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7
Q

What is another layer ontop of the buffy coat?

A

Blood platelets (thrombocytes)

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8
Q

Overall, What is the composition of blood?

A

consists of

  • blood plasma
  • formed elements :
    • erthrocytes
    • leukocytes- white blood cells (buffy coat)
    • thrombocytes(blood platelets)
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9
Q

What is blood plasma made of?

A

90% is water
-suspended within the water is a variety of things such as :
-proteins (8%)
such as albumin- makes osmotic pressure- which makes sure water does not leak out of the capillaries - help retain water
globulins- alpha and beta - transport molecules/nutrients, latch onto nutrients and transport them around the body
gamma globulins - they are the antibodies which are proteins produced by body to combat invading organisms
Clotting proteins- main one is fibrinogen which is responsible of the clotting of blood.- prevent the loss of blood

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10
Q

What else are dissolved in the plasma?

A

nutrients
oxygen
carbon dioxide - lots

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11
Q

What is the structure of the erthrocytes?

A
  • they are anucleate biconcave disc (big surface area for a small volume which is important for the exchange of substances across surfaces)
  • this allows for them to change their shape to ‘squeeze through’ (narrow openings) capillaries due to having no nucleus as it does not restrict the shape.
  • no nucleus
  • 8um wide 2um thick
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12
Q

What is the average erthrocytes for male and females?

A

5,200,000 mm-3 of blood male

4,700,000mm-3 of blood female

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13
Q

How does the erthrocytes vary?

A
  • decreases with age
  • depends what height you live at
  • depends on your health (anemic- less blood cells and polycythemia- too many blood cells)
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14
Q

What is the major function of the erthrocytes?

A

-to transport oxygen

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15
Q

How much does each erthrocyte contain?

A

280 million molecules of haemoglobin for this purpose

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16
Q

What is haemoglobin made of?

A
  • globin- made of 4 aa chains
  • each of these aa chain linked to a haem group
  • the central element of haem group is iron which binds to oxygen
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17
Q

What is the formation of blood cells?

A

Haemopoiesis

  • in the adult this occurs from stem cells in the red bone marrow
  • (blood cells forms in RED bone marrow- confined to flat bones (sternum, ribs, vertebrae, skull, pelvis) (red blood cells give the bone marrow its colour)
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18
Q

Is all the blood cells formation from one or more stem cells?

A
  • neither- somewhere inbetween
    There are 2 extreme possibilities
  • all blood cells types come from one stem cell (monophyletic)
  • each type of blood cell has its own stem cell (polyphyletic)
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19
Q

Why is haemoposiesis a limited polyphyletic theory?

A

It means there are 2 type of stem cells

  • one known as lymphoid- which produces lymphocyte
    • myeloid stem cells- which produces all the other types of blood cell.
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20
Q

What are the 2 types of leukoemia?

A
  • one is problem with lymphoid stem cells

- problem with myeloid stem cells

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21
Q

What are the 5 phases to the development of every blood cells type? (general haemopoiesis)

A
  1. Commitment of the stem cell- decide which blood cell its going to become (commit to a line of differentiation)
  2. It has to proliferate - make more copies of itself
  3. Differentiate- make specific types of proteins for that cell e.g red blood cell so therefore make haemoglobin
  4. Maturation- Protein synthesis wines down
  5. Release- released from bone marrow
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22
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

formation of RED blood cells

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23
Q

How long do erthrocytes survive for?

A
  • they survive 100-120 days
  • Around 2.5x10^8 cells are destroyed every day by the spleen.
  • longest living blood cells
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24
Q

How do you manage to produce so many erthrocytes?

A
  • Stem cell-
  • Commitment cell- become red blood cell
  • Proriferlate- nucleus starts to shrink
  • Differentiation- e.g haemoglobin starts to produce and synthesises
  • Maturation- filled with haemoglobin and takes out nucleus
  • Release- reticulocyte released from bone marrow when they are immature reticuloycyte
  • Then a few days later becomes mature and starts carrying oxygen around the body.
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25
Q

Why do you regulate the amount of red blood cell produced?

A
  • the stimulus for producing red blood cells (erthropoiesis) is low oxygen levels.
  • So more red blood cells are produced to carry more oxygen around
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26
Q

Why do you have low oxygen levels?

A

low red blood cells

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27
Q

How do you detect the low oxygen levels?

A
  • detected by kidney
  • releases erthropoietin
  • travels from kidney to bone marrow
  • in red bone marrow it stimulates erthropoiesis
  • more blood cells/erthrocytes are released
  • increased oxygen levels
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28
Q

What are blood groups?

A

these rely on antigen (agglutinogens) on the surface of RED BLOOD CELLS

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29
Q

What is an antigen?

A

markers on cells that enables the body to recognise them as foreign
if detected , the body creates antibodies which neutralises antigen

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30
Q

Prevalence of blood groups?

A

based on antigens you can classify blood.

- the frequency of these blood groups varies according to race.

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31
Q

What are the 2 ways you can classify blood?

A

AB system

Rhesus system

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32
Q

What is ABO blood groups?

A

-relies on the presence of 2 antigens called A and B.
Our red blood cells potentially have A or B antigen on our red blood cell.
- If you have A antigen= type A
B antigen= Type B
AB= Type AB
NONE= Type O

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33
Q

What is the process of the antibodies and antigens in blood groups?

A

-the plasma of a person carries the antibody (agglutinin) to the antigen that they do not posses
for example if you have antigen A , your blood plasma contains B antibody and vice versa
if have antigen AB , have no antigen in blood plasma
If are type o- have no antigen but A and B antibody in blood plasma

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34
Q

What happens if you get a wrong blood transfusion?

A

get blood clotting and lead to death

35
Q

What is type 0 blood?

A

universal donor as it posses neither antigen so therefore can give to anyone

36
Q

What is type AB blood?

A

universal recipients as you contain no antibodies- so can take anybodies blood.

37
Q

what is rhesus blood type?

A

relies on the presence of 6 antigens C , D, E , c ,d ,e

38
Q

what is the significance of C , D, E antigens ?

A

cause immune reaction.

- if an individual has these antigens they are Rh+

39
Q

what is Rh- ?

A

antigens c, d, e

40
Q

what is different about rhesus blood type ?

A

the body does not usually contain antibodies to these antigens and they take several months to form , so can get away with being given wrong Rh once ( after antibodies are present)
- You have to make the antibodies

41
Q

what are the 5 types of white blood cell ( leukocytes ) ?

A 
. neutrophils ( 40-70% )
. eosinophils ( 1-4% )
. basophils ( 0-1 % )
. lymphocytes ( 20-45 % )
. monocytes ( 4-8% )
42
Q

what is the difference between erythrocytes and leukocytes ?

A

leukocytes contain nuclei and are bigger and much less numerous ( 7000 mm-3 of blood ) (far less wbc )

43
Q

what are the two types of leukocytes structures ?

A

Morphologically they are divided into 2 types depending on whether
they have granules in their cytoplasm or not
1. granulocytes - lobed nuclei, granular cytoplasm, develop in bone barrow
neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
2. agranulocytes - no granules in cytoplasm, regular nuclei , lymphatic system
lymphocytes, monocytes

44
Q

what is the main function of most white blood cells ?

A
  • the granulocytes and monocytes protect body by phagocytosis
  • while lymphocytes (produce antibodies) are involved in the immune response
45
Q

describe the structure of neutrophils ?

A
  • contains granules (granulocyte)
  • 10 - 15 um diameter
  • nucleus composed of 2-5 -sausage - shaped lobes
  • 60-70% of all leukocytes (most common WBC)
  • powerful phagocyte
46
Q

what is the main function of neutrophils ?

A

powerful phagocyte

47
Q

how do most leukocytes leave the vascular system ?

A

by the process of diapedesis which is the passage of blood cells through the walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.

48
Q

what happens during inflammation ?

A

all white blood cells go to infected area, both diapedesis and margination increase so WBC can leave the vascular system

49
Q

what is margination?

A

cells adhere to the capillary walls

50
Q

why do most white blood cells live around body in connective tissue ?

A

invading organisms go to tissue than vascular system

51
Q

how are foreign objects recognised prior to phagocytosis ?

A
  1. roughness - foreign objects have rough surface
  2. difference in charge - foreign objects have positive charge
  3. presence of antibodies acting as ‘ flags - neutralise cell
52
Q

what happens when white blood cells encounter foreign objects ?

A

object grows pseudopodia ( long cytoplasmic extensions ) which fuse around invading organism , enclosing/engluf object in a phagocytic vesicle

53
Q

explain the process of phagocytosis- neutrophils ?

A
  1. adherence of microbe/invading organism to phagocyte
  2. ingestion of microbe by phagocyte- in a phagocytic vesicle
  3. formation of phagosome
  4. fusion of phagosome and lysosome to form a phagolysosome
  5. digestion of ingested microbe by enzyme- lyzozyme fuse with a vesicle and release the digestive enzymes onto the microbe and destroys it.
  6. formation of residual body containing indigestible material
  7. discharge of waste material- retain some waste which accumulates in cell over time- lipofuscin
  8. eventually neutrophil itself is destroyed and in turn phagocytosed by monocytes
54
Q

what is the function of proteolytic enzyme released by lysozymes ?

A

destroys object

55
Q

what is the main function of monocytes ?

A

body’s major phagocyte

56
Q

Describe the structure of monocytes?

A
  • agranular
  • they mature into large macrophages (80 um) only within the extravascular tissue
  • they form what is sometimes referred to as the tissue macrophage system
  • they need to leave the vascular system and stay in body c.t to mature into strong macrophages
  • more powerful than neutrophils.
57
Q

what is the structure of basophil?

A
  • 10-15 um diameter
  • nucleus often S-shaped
  • cytoplasm contains large granules which contain histamine , heparin , serotonin- important in inflammatory response and allergic reactions-
  • 0.5-2% of all leukocytes
  • may form mast cells- which are cells you find in c.t with big granules of histamine and heparin
  • weak phagocytes
58
Q

what is the function of basophils ?

A

important in inflammatory response and allergic reactions

- WBC can leave capillaries by the basophils releasing these chemicals

59
Q

describe structure of eosinophils ?

A
  • 9 um diameter
  • bilobed nucleus
  • granulocytes
60
Q

what is the function of eosinophils ?

A
  • detoxify foreign proteins
  • possible role in blood clotting
  • phagocytosis of antibody-antigen complex
  • found in lung , liver where there is a lot of protein
61
Q

what are the two types of lymphocytes ?

A

T- lymphocytes

B- lymphocytes

62
Q

where do T-lymphocytes mature ?

A

released from bone marrow and mature in thymus

63
Q

where do B-lymphocytes mature ?

A

bone marrow

64
Q

what is the function of T-lymphocytes ?

A

T-lymphocytes mediate cellular immunity in which the whole cell attacks the invader

65
Q

what is the function of B-lymphocytes ?

A

B-lymphocytes mediate humoral immunity via producing plasma cells which produce antibodies
that neutralise invading organisms by binding to antigens and cover toxic area

66
Q

what is the structure of thrombocyte ( blood platelets )?

A

2 um diameter
no nucleus
250,000 - 400,000 mm-3 blood

67
Q

what is the average life span of thrombocytes?

A

5-14 days

68
Q

what is the function of megakaryocyte?

A

produce around 4,000 platelets

69
Q

what is size of megakaryocyte?

A

160 um diameter

70
Q

what is the main function of blood platelets ( thrombocyte )

A

formation of blood clots to stop bleeding

71
Q

describe the pathway of formation of thrombocytes ?

A
  1. hemocytoblast
  2. megakaryoblast
  3. promegakaryocyte
  4. megakaryocyte
  5. platelets
72
Q

what is haemostasis?

A

prevention of blood loss

73
Q

what are the three phases of heamostasis ?

A
  1. vascular phase
  2. platelet phase
  3. coagulation
74
Q

what happens in the vascular phase of haemostasis ?

A

endothelial cells produce chemical signals causing
. vascular spasm - smooth muscles contract and close blood vessel and minimises blood loss
. division of endothelial cells , smooth muscles- to try and repair damage
. endothelial cells become sticky ( blood vessel become sticky )
prevent blood loss

75
Q

what happens in the platelet phase of haemostasis ?

A
  • platelets adhere to the damaged endothelium and aggregate to form a platelet plug - have accumulated- this enough to repair damage if wound not too big
  • However if big injury- need the 3rd phase - coagulation
76
Q

how does coagulation/blood clotting occur?

A

via extrinsic route and intrinsic route

coagulation occurs to repair big injury

77
Q

what is the extrinsic route in coagulation ?

A

chemicals released by endothelial cells

78
Q

what is the intrinsic route in coagulation ?

A

signals initiated by blood itself

79
Q

how is prothrombin formed ?

A

both chemical signals from endothelial cells and blood platelets via enzyme cascades in the intrinsic and extrinsic route form prothrombin

80
Q

what is the function prothrombin?

A

prothrombin activator converts plasma protein (prothrombin) into thrombin which converts fibrinogen into fibrin threads

81
Q

what is the function of fibrin threads ?

A

they stabilise and form a net that makes up the eventual clot

82
Q

time span for blood clot formation ?

A

3-6 min depending on pathway

83
Q

What are lymphocytes?

A

-made from lymphoid stem cells in bone marrow

84
Q

What are alveolar macrophages ?

A

that sit and reside within our lungs

  • deal with all of those bacteria , fungal spores and viruses
  • large and able to phagocytose engulf and destroy many bacteria at once
  • as long as this can happen we dont have a systemic problem that causes inflammation and needs to recruit neutrophils .

Biology (30 decks)

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