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Medicine > Blood Histology > Flashcards

Blood Histology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the composition of blood?

A

55% blood plasma and 45% blood cells

Blood cells are also referred to as formed blood elements.

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2
Q

How are blood cells counted?

A

By Hemocytometer or electronic apparatus.

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3
Q

What is a blood film?

A

A drop of blood spread on a glass slide.

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4
Q

What type of stain is used for blood examination?

A

Leishman’s stain.

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5
Q

What is the shape of red blood cells (RBCs)?

A

Acidophilic biconcave discs.

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6
Q

What is the thickness of the periphery and center of RBCs?

A

Thick periphery: 2 μm; Thin center: 0.8 μm.

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7
Q

What appearance do RBCs show in slow circulation?

A

Rouleaux appearance.

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8
Q

What causes the Rouleaux appearance of RBCs?

A

High surface tension causing them to adhere in columns.

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9
Q

What is crenation?

A

Shrunken RBCs in a hypertonic solution.

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10
Q

What is spherocytosis?

A

Swollen (spherical) RBCs in a hypotonic solution.

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11
Q

What is poikilocytosis?

A

Variable shapes of RBCs.

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12
Q

What is the mean diameter of RBCs?

A

7.5 μm.

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13
Q

What defines a microcyte?

A

RBCs less than 6 μm.

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14
Q

What defines a macrocyte?

A

RBCs more than 9 μm.

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15
Q

What is anisocytosis?

A

Variable diameter of RBCs.

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16
Q

What is the appearance of normochromic RBCs in a stained blood film?

A

Acidophilic with a pale center.

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17
Q

What are RBCs primarily composed of?

A

Hemoglobin (Hb).

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18
Q

What is the only organelle in RBCs?

A

Cell membrane.

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19
Q

What type of membrane proteins are found in RBCs?

A

Integral membrane proteins.
(Band 3 protein & glycophorin A)

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20
Q

What is the function of band 3 protein in RBCs? mmm

A

Ion channels.

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21
Q

What covers the outer surface of RBCs?

A

Carbohydrate-rich glycocalyx.
( Blood group & Rh factor)

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22
Q

What do the antigens in the glycocalyx determine?

A

Blood groups [ABO] and Rh factor.

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23
Q

What stabilizes the membrane of RBCs?

A

Peripheral cytoskeleton proteins.

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24
Q

What adaptations do RBCs have for gas exchange?

A

Cytoskeleton meshwork, selective permeability, biconcave shape, absence of nucleus and organelles.

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25
Q

What enzymes are contained in RBCs?

A

Hb reductase ( combine with O2)and carbonic anhydrase ( carry CO2)

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26
Q

What is the shape of red blood cells (RBCs)?

A

Acidophilic biconcave discs

This shape increases the surface area for gas exchange.

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27
Q

What is the thickness of the periphery and center of RBCs?

A

Thick periphery: 2 μm, Thin center: 0.8 μm

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28
Q

What appearance do RBCs show in slow circulation?

A

Rouleaux appearance

This is due to high surface tension, causing RBCs to adhere in columns (piles of coins), which is reversible and causes no damage.

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29
Q

What are the causes of abnormal shapes of RBCs?

A

Changes in cell membrane or Hb content

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30
Q

Define crenation in RBCs.

A

Shrunken RBCs in hypertonic solution

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31
Q

What happens to RBCs in a hypotonic solution?

A

They swell (spherocytosis) and may rupture, leaving cell ghosts

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32
Q

What is poikilocytosis?

A

Variable shapes of RBCs, such as sickle cells and ovalocytes

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33
Q

What is the mean diameter of RBCs?

A

7.5 μm

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34
Q

What is classified as a microcyte?

A

RBCs less than 6 μm

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35
Q

What is classified as a macrocyte?

A

RBCs more than 9 μm

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36
Q

What does anisocytosis refer to?

A

Variable diameter of RBCs

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37
Q

What is the appearance of normochromic RBCs in a blood film stained with Leishman stain?

A

Acidophilic with a pale center (about 1/3 of the diameter)

Normochromic RBCs indicate a normal amount of hemoglobin.

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38
Q

What is the structure and composition of RBCs?

A

Not true cells; non-nucleated sacs filled with hemoglobin (Hb) and no organelles

RBCs primarily consist of hemoglobin, which is responsible for oxygen transport.

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39
Q

What is the only organelle present in RBCs?

A

Cell membrane

The cell membrane contains important proteins and structures essential for RBC function.

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40
Q

What type of proteins are predominantly found in the RBC membrane?

A

Integral membrane proteins, including ion channels like band 3 protein and glycophorin A

These proteins play critical roles in ion transport and blood group antigen presentation.

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41
Q

What covers the outer surface of RBC membranes?

A

Carbohydrate-rich glycocalyx

The glycocalyx is involved in cell recognition and interaction.

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42
Q

What antigens are contained in the glycocalyx of RBCs?

A

Blood groups [ABO] and Rh factor

These antigens are crucial for blood transfusion compatibility.

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43
Q

What is associated with the inner surface of the RBC membrane?

A

Peripheral cytoskeleton proteins

These proteins help stabilize the membrane and maintain the biconcave shape of RBCs.

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44
Q

What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton meshwork in RBCs?

A

Reinforces the membrane and maintains shape and flexibility

This adaptation allows RBCs to navigate through narrow capillaries.

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45
Q

What property of the RBC membrane allows selective permeability?

A

Selective permeability to O2 and CO2

This property is essential for gas exchange during respiration.

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46
Q

What is the significance of the biconcave shape of RBCs?

A

Increases surface area for gas exchange

The biconcave shape facilitates efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.

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47
Q

What advantage does the absence of nucleus and organelles provide to RBCs?

A

More space for hemoglobin

This adaptation enhances the oxygen-carrying capacity of RBCs.

48
Q

Name two enzymes contained in RBCs.

A
  • Hb reductase
  • Carbonic anhydrase

Hb reductase assists in oxygen binding, while carbonic anhydrase helps transport carbon dioxide.

49
Q

What is the average life span of red blood cells (RBCs)?

A

About 120 days

50
Q

Where are old RBCs recognized and phagocytosed?

A

In the liver, spleen, and bone marrow

51
Q

What is the average number of RBCs per mm3 in a normal adult male?

A

5 - 5.5 million/mm3

52
Q

What is the average number of RBCs per mm3 in adult females?

A

4.5 - 5 million/mm3

53
Q

What causes the lower average number of RBCs in adult females?

A

Menstrual cycle and inhibitory effect of female hormones on bone marrow

54
Q

What is anemia?

A

Decreased number of RBCs below 4 million/mm3 and/or decreased hemoglobin concentration

55
Q

What is polycythemia?

A

Increased number of RBCs above 6 million/mm3

56
Q

What stimulates the bone marrow to produce more RBCs in polycythemia?

A

Hypoxia

57
Q

What are the physiological causes of polycythemia?

A
  • High altitudes
  • Muscular exercise
  • Newborns
58
Q

What are the pathological causes of polycythemia?

A
  • Chronic lung diseases
  • Chronic heart diseases
59
Q

What is pernicious anemia?

A

Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia due to failed production of intrinsic factor by the stomach

60
Q

What is hemorrhagic anemia?

A

Excessive loss of blood due to bleeding nose, piles, or excess menstrual bleeding

61
Q

What is hemolytic anemia?

A

Excess destruction of RBCs due to abnormal shape or abnormal Hb content

62
Q

What characterizes sickle cell anemia?

A

An abnormal rigid type of Hb that gives a crescent shape to RBCs

63
Q

What are platelets (thrombocytes)?

A

Very small non-nucleated, membrane-bound cell fragments

Platelets are not true cells.

64
Q

What is the origin of platelets?

A

Cytoplasmic fragmentation of megakaryocyte in bone marrow

65
Q

What is the normal platelet count range?

A

150,000-400,000/mm3

66
Q

What is thrombocytosis?

A

Increase in platelets number

67
Q

What is thrombocytopenia?

A

Decrease in platelets number

68
Q

What is the lifespan of a platelet?

A

10 days

69
Q

Where are old platelets phagocytosed?

A

By macrophages in the spleen

70
Q

How are platelets seen in a blood film?

A

Singly or more commonly as clumps

71
Q

What is the shape of platelets?

A

Oval (Biconvex) discs

72
Q

What is the size of platelets?

A

2-4 µm in diameter

73
Q

What are the two zones of a platelet?

A

Hyalomere and granulomere

74
Q

What is the outer pale basophilic peripheral zone of a platelet called?

A

Hyalomere

75
Q

What is the central dark granular zone of a platelet called?

A

Granulomere

76
Q

What is the function of the glycocalyx in platelets?

A

Helps platelets adhesion & aggregation (platelet plug)

77
Q

What does the marginal bundle in the hyalomere consist of?

A

Microtubules rings and actin & myosin microfilaments

78
Q

What is the role of microtubules in platelets?

A

Maintaining the discoid form of platelets

79
Q

What is the role of actin & myosin microfilaments in platelets?

A

Platelet contraction for motility & blood clot retraction

80
Q

What are the two membranous tubular systems in the context of platelets?

A
  1. Open canalicular system
  2. Dense tubular system

The open canalicular system facilitates uptake of factors from plasma and rapid degranulation at activation, while the dense tubular system stores Ca2+ ions.

81
Q

What is the function of the open canalicular system?

A

Facilitates:
* Uptake of factors from plasma
* Rapid degranulation at activation & Ca2+ release

The open canalicular system is an invagination from the cell membrane.

82
Q

What does the dense tubular system store?

A

Ca2+ ions

The dense tubular system consists of remnants of the endoplasmic reticulum of megakaryocytes.

83
Q

What is contained within the granulomere of platelets?

A
  1. Mitochondria
  2. Ribosomes
  3. Glycogen
  4. 3 types of granules

The granulomere is a crucial component of platelets.

84
Q

What are the three types of granules found in platelets?

A
  1. α (alpha) granules
  2. Delta granules (Dense bodies)
  3. λ (lambda) granules

Each type of granule has specific contents and functions.

85
Q

What do α (alpha) granules contain?

A
  1. Clotting factors (e.g., fibrinogen)
  2. Growth factors
  3. Ca2+

α granules are the majority of granules in platelets.

86
Q

What is contained in delta granules (Dense bodies)?

A
  1. ADP
  2. ATP
  3. Serotonin

Delta granules play a role in platelet function and aggregation.

87
Q

What do λ (lambda) granules contain?

A

Lysosomes

λ granules are involved in the degradation of substances.

88
Q

What does purpura indicate?

A

Thrombocytopenia

Purpura refers to a condition characterized by small purple spots on the skin due to bleeding underneath.

89
Q

What is the platelet count that indicates thrombocytopenia?

A

Less than 50,000/mm3

Thrombocytopenia can lead to serious bleeding complications.

90
Q

What are the two main causes of thrombocytopenia?

A
  1. Decreased production (bone marrow depression)
  2. Increased breakdown (autoimmune disease)

Understanding the causes is critical for treatment.

91
Q

What are the characteristics of thrombocytopenia?

A
  1. Prolonged bleeding time
  2. Excessive bleeding after minor trauma

These symptoms highlight the risks associated with low platelet counts.

92
Q

Q: What are the components of the C.T. stroma in bone marrow?

A

A:

Reticular cells (fibroblast-like)
Reticular fibers (collagen type I)
Macrophages
Fat cell

93
Q

Q: What are the characteristics of blood sinusoids in bone marrow?

A

Wide and irregular, supported by reticular fibers
Lined with fenestrated endothelial cells
Discontinuous basement membrane
Surrounded by macrophages

94
Q

Q: What is found in the hematopoietic cords of bone marrow?

A

Developing blood cells at different stages
Mesenchymal stem cells that produce tissues in addition to blood cells

95
Q

Q: What are leucocytes (WBCs)?

A

A: True cells with a single nucleus and organelles.

96
Q

Q: How long do leucocytes remain in the blood and connective tissue?

A

Several hours in blood
Few days in connective tissue

97
Q

Q: What is the normal range for WBC count in blood?

A

A: 4,000 to 11,000/mm³

98
Q

Q: What is leukocytosis, and what are its causes?

A

:

Leukocytosis: Increase in WBCs > 11,000/mm³
Causes:
Physiological (Transient): Pregnancy, labor, cold bath, exercise
Pathological: Acute or chronic infections

99
Q

Q: What is leukopenia, and what are its causes?

A

Leukopenia: Decrease in WBCs < 4,000/mm³
Causes:
X-ray exposure
Irradiation
Typhoid fever
Influenza virus
Excessive use of some antibiotics

100
Q

Q: What are the two main types of leucocytes, and what distinguishes them?

A

Granular Leucocytes: Have specific + non-specific granules
Agranulocytes: Have only non-specific granules

101
Q

Q: What are the percentages of different types of WBCs?

A

Neutrophils: 60-70%
Eosinophils: 1-4%
Basophils: 0-1%
Lymphocytes: 20-30%
Monocytes: 3-8%

102
Q

Q: What are granular leucocytes? List their types.

A

: WBCs with specific and non-specific granules:

Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils

103
Q

Q: What are agranulocytes? List their types.

A

WBCs with only non-specific granules:

Lymphocytes
Monocytes

104
Q

Q: What are neutrophils also known as?

A

Polymorphonuclear leucocytes (P.M.N.)
Microphages

105
Q

Q: What is the normal differential count for neutrophils?

A

A: 60-70%

106
Q

Q: What is neutrophilia, and what are its causes?

A

Neutrophilia: Increased neutrophil count
Causes: Acute pyogenic (bacterial) infections such as:
Acute tonsillitis
Acute appendicitis
Abscessخراج

107
Q

Q: What is neutropenia, and what are its causes?

A

Neutropenia: Decreased neutrophil count
Causes:
Influenza
Measles
Typhoid
Tuberculosis (T.B.)

108
Q

Q: What is the diameter of neutrophils?

A

A: 12-15 µm

109
Q

Q: Describe the nucleus of neutrophils under L.M. (Light Microscope).

A

Single but segmented into 2-5 lobes
Lobes connected by thin chromatin threads
Dark and variable in shape (Polymorphonuclear

110
Q

Q: What is the significance of the Barr body in neutrophils?

A

Found in 6% of neutrophils in females only
Nucleus has a drumstick appearance
Represents the condensed, inactive X chromosome

111
Q

Q: Describe the cytoplasm of neutrophils under L.M.

A

Pale basophilic cytoplasm
Contains numerous granules of two types:
Neutrophilic granules: Specific, fine granules
Azurophilic granules: Non-specific, stain purple with azure dye

112
Q

Q: What are the electron microscopic features of the nucleus in neutrophils?

A

Peripheral heterochromatin
Small central euchromatin

113
Q

Q: What are the features of neutrophil cytoplasm under electron microscopy?

A

Presence of pseudopodia for movement
Few organelles
High glycogen content for energy
Contains two types of granules:
Specific Neutrophilic granules
Non-specific Azurophilic granules

114
Q

Q: What are specific neutrophilic granules, and what do they contain?

A

80% of granules
Small, numerous, membrane-bound granules
Contain:
Phagocytin: Bactericidal
Lactoferrin: Bacteriostatic
Collagenase

115
Q

Q: What are non-specific azurophilic granules, and what do they contain?

A

20% of granules
Large, less numerous, electron-dense
They are primary lysosomes containing:
Hydrolytic enzymes
Myeloperoxidase: Acts against bacteria and viruses

116
Q

Q: What is the main function of neutrophils?

A

l infection
Steps:
Margination: Neutrophils adhere to vessel walls
Diapedesis: Migrate between endothelial cells
Phagocytosis: Engulf and digest bacteria using granules
Dead neutrophils form pus cells

117
Q
A

Medicine (7 decks)

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