biology Flashcards
what are nucleic acids and give examples
they are very acidic due to their phosphate groups and remain in the nucleus
nucleotide vs nucleoside
nucleoside is base with sugar WITHOUT phosphate group
1 nucleotide is equal to how many base pairs?
1
annealing / hybridization
joining the dna strands together again and usually occurs once cooling takes place
why is it called a right handed double helix
because it is coiled up in a clockwise fashion with only the phosphate groups being exposed
role of dna gyrase “gyrate” shakira
works for dna of proks twist and supercoil their dna to make less bulky
of chromosomes of prok?
1
diff btwn guanosine and adenosine
guan has carbonyl group
diff btwn the pyrimidines
uracil has two carbonyl groups and thymine has two carbonyl and a methyl group
nucleosomes
dna that wraps around histones and groups them in octamers
centromere
where the spindle fibers attach for cellular division
intergenic regions
noncoding RNA
what mitotic phase will be able to see chromosome the clearest?
metaphase
single nucleotide polymorphisms
essentially mutations and occur mostly in noncoding regions
benefit and cost of tandem repeats
the nucleotides of repeats can protect genes but if unstable or short or too long, can cause harmful mutations
codon
nucleic acid with three nucleotides
non sense codons
aka stop codons because they don’t code for any amino acid
origin of replication (ORI)
proteins that belong at least in the tertiary structure have to be able to recognize it so that helicase can begin. Once they regognize they are destroyed so that replic doesn’t occur in any other stage.
ORI AKA DNA A for proks
why is the lagging strand discontinuous?
it requires a RNA primer to continuously have dna polymerase add to the strand so it can only do lil by il causing the okazaki fragments
name 2 types of endonucleases
overall cuts the polynucleotide in the middle
repair enzymes remove damaged dna from chain
restriction enzymes remove damaged dna from viruses found in bacteria
DNA pol I
works slower than the dna pol III and requires an rna primer (ran primase must remove the primer so that DNA 1 to add nucleotides for the lagging strands
has a 3’ to 5’ proofreading activity
DNA POL III
works well in processing, focuses on the laeding strand,
what is a 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity mean
had proffreading ability (usually works at the end of the chain)
define telomerase
adds extra nucleotides to the chromosome due to the fact that telomeres are not involved in replication so nothing else to keep them from shortening except telomerase
bad effect of telomerase with cancer
it keeps the cancer cell somewhat immortal by bypassing the apoptosis and continues to prolong their life by adding extra nucleotides to the cancerous cells
y is ethium bromide a mutagen?
bc it intercalates into DNA messing up the helix. usually used in cell molec labs to see visible dna during electrophoresis light
what are the 3 type of point mutations
missense , nonsense, and silent
define missense mutation
when u have point mutation and one nucleotide mismatching mistake may cause a diff aa but may not be serious IF AND ONLY IF an aa is replaced with an aa of the same character
nonconservative mutation
slight change in the genotype of polypeptide chain but goes undetected to not affect the phenotype
framseshift mutation includes ??
an insertion or deletion which can be very bad !
inversion
when the chromosome uses itself to get a segment of its own to reverse and then put insert in itself again
chromosome amplification
segment of the chromosome is duplicated
transloctaion
two nonhomologous chomosomes enter recombination with each other
what is the difference between primer, rna polymerase, and dna polymerase?
primer is needed to start replication and is made by dna primase
rna polymerase is needed to start transcription going into mrna
dna polymerase is made to add more nucleotides to the three end of the strand for replic
which strand matches the mrna when it is only replacing the t with u
coding strand
what group do introns belong to
nonsense
what is special about the hair pin loop in transcription
it causes the strands to change structure and causes the rna polymerase to drop off and stop transcription
what is the shine delgarno ?
in bacteria it is where the ribosome attaches to start the translation processes once the start codon AUG is attached as well
5 cap is used for protection but also for what
the ribosome will recognize it and start the translation processs for euks
how is bacteria start codon different from euk start codon?
it has formal methionine whch is interesting bc if found in the bloodstream of euk, it can trigger an alarm that causes inflammation response because something Is happening to the bacteria in the body
mismatch repair mechanism
- notices there is a problem bc the phosphate backbone appears distorted by sticking outwards
- mark incorrect base with a cut as a notice
- exonuclease removes it
- nuclease correctly matches it to a new nucleotide
- dna ligase
ALL OCCURS AFTER REPLICATION?
how does mismatch know which strand is which and which base is correct?
parental strands have their adenine methylated so it knows not to touch the parental strand in bacteria but not known how it knows in euks
mutation vs dna damage
mut is a change in sequence of the dna like wrong nucleotide matched
dna dam has correct order but can be damaged by engoenous (o2 radicals or h2o2) or exodgennbous factors like gamma xray
nucleotide excision repair
- endonuclease removes the dimers or any nucleotides that are not supposed to be there
- dna pol I will bring the correct nucleotide
- dna ligase to seal together
nuclease
enzyme that can remove the nucleotides
what happens to dna when mismatch doesn’t come into place
apoptiosis,
semsemsce
rapid cell division which leads to cancer
sensenscense
due to dna damage cell enters the dormant stage and no longer grows
what is acetylation and when does it occur
VS methylation
co translational protein modif and replaces methionine and of trying to replace histones, it removes the pos charge whch reduces the phosphate groups of dna from interacting well with the pos charge that was once on the histones
So the DNA is not getting acetylated: it’s the histones that are.
Acetylation occurs at lysine residues on the histone, which removes the (+) charge off of the R-group. This causes the DNA to open up (since the favorable interaction between (+) charged histone and (-) charged DNA is lost), hence why it’s associated with gene activation.
Deacetylation has the opposite effect.
Here’s an image I found from google images of histone acetylation that might help further with this
With methylation, both the DNA and histones can be methylated.
DNA methylation is associated with gene repression, as the addition of a methyl group onto the cytosine of CpG islands can mess up the binding of TFs onto the regulatory parts of a gene. So you’ll get less transcription at a gene that has lots of DNA methylation.
Histone methylation can have either an activating or a repressing effect (I doubt they’ll test this on the MCAT). It’s weird enough where I’ve read of cases where if you add one methyl group, it activates, but when you add another methyl group, it becomes repressive… And then you add a third methyl group, and it’s back to being activating. I think just knowing that it has an effect on gene expression is sufficient for the MCAT
Acetylation is also a temporary DNA modification
Methylation is a permanent DNA modification
define glycosylation
adding of a carbohydrate to a protein that ends up being embeded in the cell membrane
helps for identification process like in ABO blood groups
happens after translation
define lipidation
add lipids to a protein which occurs after translation
usually for GPI anchors that helps to attach protein to cell membrane
discuss relationship btwn phosphorylation and sodium potassium pump?
when bring sodium out of the cytolplasms (about 3) there needs to be a phosphate group attached to the pump BUT that phosphate MUST BE REMOVED when bringing potassium back in
why is proteolysis not necessarily a bad thing
sometimes cutting a protein helps to activate it which is common in activating insulin
ubiquination
marks the protein for destruction and the protein parts will be recycled
why is a virus known as a obligate intracellular parasite?
in order to reproduce and “live”, it needs to live within the host to survive
can a virus have rna and dna nucleic acids at the same time?
no only one at a time
if a virus just made two proteins of diff sizes, what does that mean?
it is using more than one reading frame which causes there to be overlap of diff protein sizes
what does it mean if you see that the virus dna has more adenine than thymine in its code?
basically because they are not equal in ratio as they should be when they pair up for double stranded dna, it must be single stranded dna bc of the unequal distrib
what does the capsid have
couple of proteins, coat, and the head may have the genome
shaft / sheath
used to input its genome into the host but bacteria has special quality to break cell walls
what is important about the envelope of viruses? and why are phage and plant viruses naked envelpopes
envelopes have the host carbohydrates and phospholipids which trick the host so that the virus can enter and leave better
bacteria viruses already have to break down the cell wall so when they leave the host will rupture (lytic) anyways because their cell walls are destroyed
what does early state of virus mean?
one of the group of genes that immediately gets expressed when the virus infects the host
what does late state of the virus mean
things that occur and help virus right b4 the host ruptures
how is hydrolase unique to virsuses
early state that immediately destroysthe genome of the host so that the virus can start making its own genome
how are lysoszy,es unique to viruses
late state that destroys the bacteria cell wall whch causes the host to rupture and the copies of the virus to escape
what comes in and out of the nuclear pore
mrna comes out and the proteins come in
nucleolus
site of ribosome assemble that makes r rna so that’s why it has a lot of heterochromatin
once ribosomes are made they leave the pore
smooth er
metabolizes carbohydrates, take care of toxins, synthesize lipids
rough er
make proteins
post translational occurs
disulfide bonds r formed in the lumen but not the cytosol part
secretory pathway for proteins
synthesized in rough er but has signal sequence
rough er , cis stack Golgi , medial stack, trans Golgi (furthest away from er) , vesicle
endocrine vs exocrine
exocrine releases directly to organ and endocrine release to blood stream
simple epithelium vs stratified
simple is for diffusion (alveoli) gas exchange
stratified acts as protective layer to deal with stress like esophagus when food comes in
how do epithelial cells get nutrients
doesn’t have blood vessels so it gets it from nearby tissue
cytoskeleton
serves as
structural support
movement
transport of substances in the cell
microtubules
involved in
mitotic spindsle
make up cilia (hairlike projections to help sweep things up out of the cell)
help with flagellum (tail)
help to move things ioverall
intermediate fillaments
structural support
help resist mechanical stress similar to springs inside a mattress
focuses with movement to move out of cell
microfilaments
movement of cell within
dynamic (can lengthen and shorten frequently)
lengthen with actin polymerization
shorter in actin depolarization
found in cell division when pinching occurs to separate into two diff cells
where does hydrophobic waste and hydrophilic waste occur
hydrophobic is liver
hydrophilic like solvent and solutes
internal urinary sphincter
under involuntary smooth muscle (some skeletal) because u don’t want to pee all the time
as u move from outside of kidney to inwards what incr
osmolarity which causes ions to move where they are so cause inside to be more hypertonic (more salts)
kidney functions
reabsorption of water, nutrients like glucose from filtrate to blood
secretion is move substance from blood to filtrate like drugs toxins and wastes
filtration
creatinine
acts as a waste product so if high it is bad
indicator of poor kidney function
what do arteries have that veins don’t have ?
more muscle to contract
high adh causes may be due to
exercise
LOWbp
dehydrated
what does renin and ace inhibitors do
former incr bp and latter decr bp
how to treat high bp
low salt
ace inhib
low salt
when bp is normal what does that helps
promote filtration
juxtular glomularar apparatus
controls bp
connector btwn afferent and distal convoluted
afferent arteriole in kidney
notice pressure changes
too low, incr
too high do dilate
distal convoluted tubule
ions moving in and out like calcium goes to urine
reasoption of other ions that we don’t want to pee away like nacl
measures osmolarity through chemoreceptors
aldosterone
na reabsorbance and potassium secretion
atriole naturetic protein
high bp that causes the atriums to get bigger and stretch and acts to lower bp bc it is a vasodilator…
inhibit aldosterone
works as opp of renin angionin bc cant go at same time bc that is bad
ph respiration vs renal regulation
ph is slow in renals
when it comes to ph getting lower, what happens to the protrons
they go through the blood stream
glomerulus
leaks out fluid like glucose, aa, and sodium and h20 but fluid is then captured in bowmans capsule
mouth exocrine parts
salive to moisturize the mouth
auxotroph
cant do the thing so ex of histadine meanes they cant make it so they have to be given it bc cant make on own
would be called histadine - minus
lactose - means DONT GIV IT TO THEM (EXCEPTION) BC CANT DIGEST IT
Sertoli
give sperm nutrition and have androgen (male hormone) binding
spermatonia
immature sperm that live in Sertoli cells
interstitual cells aka leydig
make testosterone