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A Level Biology > Biological Molecules > Flashcards

Biological Molecules Flashcards

1
Q

What is a monomer

A

The smallest unit from which larger molecules are made

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2
Q

What is a polymer

A

Molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together

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3
Q

What is hydrolysis reaction

A

When water is used to break bonds

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4
Q

What is condensation reaction

A

Joins two molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond
- water is produced as a bi product

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5
Q

What is polymerisation

A

Forming a polymer from a long chain or monomers

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6
Q

What is an organic compound

A

Contains carbon
- found in living things

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7
Q

Examples of organic compounds

A
  • sugars
  • fatty acids
  • carbohydrates
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8
Q

What elements are carbohydrates made from

A
  • carbon
  • oxygen
  • hydrogen
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9
Q

What elements are lipids made from

A
  • carbon
  • oxygen
  • hydrogen
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10
Q

What elements are proteins made from

A
  • carbon
  • hydrogen
  • oxygen
  • nitrogen
  • (sulfur)
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11
Q

What elements are nucleic acids made from

A
  • phosphorus
  • carbon
  • oxygen
  • hydrogen
  • nitrogen
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12
Q

What monomers are in carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides

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13
Q

What monomers are in lipids

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

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14
Q

What monomers for proteins

A

Amino acids

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15
Q

What monomers form nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

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16
Q

What polymers for carbohydrates

A

Polysaccharides

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17
Q

What polymers form lipids

A

Triglycerides

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18
Q

What polymers for proteins

A

Polypeptide

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19
Q

What polymers for nucleic acids

A

Polynucleotides

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20
Q

What are covalent bonds

A
  • atoms share electrons
  • are able to form polar molecules when the electrons are shared unequally
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21
Q

What are ionic bonds

A
  • atoms give a receive electrons
  • charged particles called ions
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22
Q

What is hydrogen bonding

A
  • weak electrostatic intermolecular bonds formed between molecules containing hydrogen
  • molecules with an uneven charge distribution is polarized
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23
Q

What bonding takes place in water

A

Hydrogen bonding
- delta positive hydrogen bonds with delta negative oxygen from two different water molecules

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24
Q

Properties of water

A
  • high surface tension/cohesion
  • adhesion
  • high specific heat capacity
  • high latent heat of vaporization
  • solid, liquid and gas
  • ice is less dense than water
  • universal solvent
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25
Q

Biological importance of water having high surface tension

A
  • columns of water in plant vascular tissue are pulled up the xylem tissue together from the roots
  • insects like pond-skippers can walk on water
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26
Q

Biological importance of water being able to adhere to things

A
  • Evapotranspiration
  • tiny tubes in root hairs such water from the soil
  • xylem and stomata
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27
Q

Biological importance of water having a high specific heat capacity

A
  • living organisms need a stable temperature for enzyme-controlled reactions to happen properly
  • aquatic organisms need a stable environment in which to live
  • releases heat energy slowly to moderate the Earth’s climate
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28
Q

Biological importance of water having a high latent heat of vaporization

A
  • help to cool living things are keep their temperature stable
  • water evaporating
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29
Q

Biological importance of water being a liquid at room temperature

A
  • provides habitats for living things in rivers, lakes and seas
  • form a major component for the tissue in living organism
  • provide a reaction medium for chemical reactions
  • provide an effective transport system (in blood and vascular tissue)
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30
Q

Biological importance of waters density

A

Ice is less dense then water so :
- aquatic organisms have a stable environment to live in through the winter
- ponds and or their bodies of water are insulated against extreme cold. The layer of ice reduces the rate of heat loss

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31
Q

Biological importance of water being a universal solvent

A
  • molecules and ions can more around and react together in water. Many reactions happen in the cytoplasm which is 70% water
  • molecules and ions can be transported around living things whilst dissolved in water
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32
Q

What is specific heat capacity

A

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1C

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33
Q

What is latent heat of vaporization

A

The amount of energy required to change one mole of a liquid into a gas

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34
Q

Examples of monosaccharides

A

Pentose (5 carbons)
- deoxyribose
- ribose
Hexose (6 carbons)
- galactose
- glucose
- fructose

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35
Q

Examples of disaccharides

A
  • sucrose
  • maltose
  • lactose
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36
Q

Examples of polysaccharides

A
  • starch
  • cellulose
  • glycogen
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37
Q

What are carbohydrates broken down into

A

Sugars
- monosaccharide
- disaccharide
Non-sugars
- polysaccharides

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38
Q

What are fructose

A
  • very soluble
  • sweeter then glucose
  • found in fruit and nectars
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39
Q

What are galactose

A
  • not as soluble as fructose
  • important role in producing glycolipids and glycoproteins
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40
Q

What are the two different types of glucose

A
  • alpha glucose
  • beta glucose
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41
Q

What is the difference between alpha and beta glucose

A

The placement of the -OH group
- if hydroxyl group is above it is a beta glucose
- if hydroxyl group is below it is an alpha glucose

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42
Q

How are disaccharides formed

A

Hydrogen from one monosaccharide and OH from other monosaccharide attach through condensation reaction
- the covalent bond formed is called a 1-4 carbon glycosidic bond

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43
Q

What type of sugar are maltose and lactose

A

Reducing sugar

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44
Q

What type of sugar is sucrose

A

Non-reducing sugar

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45
Q

What monosaccharides make maltose

A

Glucose + glucose

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46
Q

What monosaccharides make lactose

A

Glucose + galactose

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47
Q

What monosaccharide makes sucrose

A

Glucose + fructose

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48
Q

Where are maltose commonly found

A

The mouth

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49
Q

Where is lactose normally found

A

Milk

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50
Q

Where is sucrose normal found

A

Sugar beet and sugar cane

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51
Q

What are the main differences between monosaccharides and polysaccharides

A
  • not sweet, insoluble, not crystalline, compact and dense granules
  • large monomers made from monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
  • branched chains
  • energy storage molecule within cells
  • glucose is released for respiration
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52
Q

What is the role of alpha-glucose in the body

A
  • energy source
  • component of starch and glycogen
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53
Q

What is the role of beta-glucose in the body

A
  • energy source
  • component of cellulose which provide structural support in plant cell walls
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54
Q

What is the role of ribose in the body

A
  • component of ribonucleic acid (RNA), ATP and NAD
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55
Q

What is the role of deoxyribose in the body

A
  • component of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
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56
Q

What are the two substances in starch

A

Amylose - 20%
Amylopectin - 80%

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57
Q

What is amylose

A
  • component part of starch
  • glucose/energy storage in plants found particularly in chloroplasts
    • few branches
    • highly compact
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58
Q

What type of bonds does amylose have

A

1-4 glycosidic bonds

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59
Q

What is amylopectin

A
  • highly branched molecules
    • more branches = more energy released
    • can be hydrolyzed by amylase quicker then amylose
  • more glucose available for respiration
    • humans have a higher metabolic demand to plants
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60
Q

What type of bonds does amylopectin have

A

1-6 glycosidic bonds

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61
Q

What colour does amylose turn when mixed with iodine

A

Blue/black

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62
Q

What colour does amylopectin turn when mixed with iodine

A

Stays orange/brown

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63
Q

Why is starch such a good storage molecule

A
  • has a high osmotic potential (wont be dissolved in water)
  • high number of glucose available at one time
  • more glucose are available for respiration
64
Q

Where is glycogen found

A

Animals
- human liver and muscles

65
Q

What is glycogen

A

Storage carbohydrate in animals

66
Q

What is the structure of glycogen

A
  • highly branched
    • 1-6 glycosidic bond every 20-30 monomers
  • contains some hydrogen bonds
    • spiraling
    • not enough to hold iodine
67
Q

Why is glycogen a good storage molecule

A
  • insoluble = osmotic potential
  • highly branched
  • large/compact
68
Q

What is the structure of cellulose like

A
  • alternate glucose are inverted
  • straight chain
  • hydrogen bonds between the -OH groups (intermolecular)
    • form bundles called microfibrils

Microfibril -> macrofibril -> fibre
- gives structural support to cellulose cell walls

69
Q

How has cellulose adapted

A
  • insoluble
  • large molecule
  • many hydrogen bonds
  • glycosidic bonds
  • criss-cross arrangement of microfibrils
  • humans don’t have the enzymes to break them down
  • cellulose give us fibre
70
Q

What is the structure of lactose like

A
  • beta glucose
  • one glucose monomer and one galactose monomer
  • beta glycosidic bonds
  • sugars in opposing orientations
71
Q

What is the structure of maltose like

A
  • alpha glucose
  • both monomers are glucose
  • alpha glycosidic bonds
  • both monomers in the same direction
72
Q

What is the structure of amylose like

A
  • coiled
  • no glucose are inverted
  • granular
  • alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
73
Q

What is the structure of cellulose like

A
  • no coiling
  • alternate glucose is inverted
  • beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds
  • fibrous
74
Q

What bond do dipeptide have

A

Peptide bond

75
Q

What type of reaction forms a dipeptide

A

Condensation reaction

76
Q

What is an amino acid

A
  • monomers of all proteins
  • all amino acids have the same basic structures
77
Q

What is a peptide bond

A

A bond formed when two amino acids are joined by a condensation reaction

78
Q

What is the general structure of an amino acid

A

H R O
| | ||
N — C — C
| | |
H H OH

79
Q

What is the general formula for a dipeptide

A

H R O R O
| | || | ||
N — C — C — N — C — C
| | | | |
H H H H OH

80
Q

How many different amino acids are there

A

20

81
Q

What does glycine have in the R group of the amino acid

A

Hydrogen

82
Q

What does alanine have in the R group of the amino acid

A

CH3

83
Q

What does the R group in an amino acid change about the amino acids function

A

The R group determines how the protein will bond

84
Q

What does amphoteric mean

A

Attracted to both water and fats
- contains both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic part

85
Q

What does protein being amphoteric allow it to do

A

Allows it to act as a buffer

86
Q

How is protein able to act as a buffer

A
  • can ionize as both an acid and a base
  • can donate ions to ionize
  • if the solution is acidic it accepts H+ ions (amino group)
  • if the solution is alkaline it donates H+ ions (carboxyl group)
87
Q

Why can a large variety of polypeptides be formed

A

100 amino acids in a polypeptide chain
20 different amino acids

20^100 different polypeptide chains

88
Q

What are the different shapes of protein conformations

A
  • primary structure
  • secondary structure
  • tertiary structure
  • quaternary structure
89
Q

What is primary structure

A

The sequence of amino acids found in protein molecules

90
Q

With is secondary structure

A
  • the coiling and folding of an amino acid chain
  • often happens as a result of hydrogen bonds forming between different part of the chain
  • alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
91
Q

What is tertiary structure

A
  • the overall three-dimensional shape of a protein molecule
  • forms due to interactions including hydrogen bonds, disulphide bridges, ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions
92
Q

What is quaternary structure

A

Protein structure when a protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain
- insulin

93
Q

What is a disulphide bond

A

Strong covalent bond formed by the oxidization of -SH groups of two cysteine side chains

94
Q

What happens when something is hydrophilic

A

Polar R groups attract other polar molecules like water

95
Q

What happens when something is hydrophobic

A

Non polar R groups face the inside of the protein

96
Q

What is the function of a globular protien

A
  • compact spherical shape
  • soluble in water (hydrophilic side chain)
  • metabolic function
  • specific 3D shape
97
Q

What is the function of a fibrous protein

A
  • long, parallel chains
  • insoluble in water
  • peptide chains cross link for strength
  • structural molecule
  • repeated amino acid sequence
98
Q

Example of a globular protein

A
  • haemoglobin
  • enzymes
  • transport proteins
  • antibodies
99
Q

Example of a fibrous protein

A
  • collagen
  • keratin
100
Q

What is the function of haemobglobin

A
  • transports oxygen around the body
101
Q

What is the function of collagen

A

Provides mechanical strength in blood vessel walls, tendons, bones, cartilage and connective tissue

102
Q

What test is used for protein

A

Biuret test
- turns purple if protein is present

103
Q

What monosaccharide does amylose contain

A

Alpha glucose

104
Q

What monosaccharide does cellulose contain

A

Beta glucose

105
Q

What monosaccharide does glycogen contain

A

Alpha glucose

106
Q

What type of glycosidic bond does amylose have

A

1-4

107
Q

What type of glycosidic bond does cellulose have

A

1-4

108
Q

What type of glycosidic bond does glycogen have

A

1-4 and 1-6

109
Q

What shape is amylose

A

Helical structure

110
Q

What shape is cellulose

A
  • straight chain
  • unbranched
111
Q

What shape is glycogen

A
  • circular/spherical
  • branched
112
Q

Where is the hydrogen bonding in amylose

A

Within

113
Q

Where is the hydrogen bonding in cellulose

A

Within and between

114
Q

Are amylose, cellulose and glycogen soluble in water

A

No

115
Q

What is the structure of triglycerides

A

Glycerol molecules bonded to three fatty acids

116
Q

What is the structure of phospholipids

A

Glycerol molecule bonded to two fatty acids and a phosphate group

117
Q

What is the structure of cholesterol

A

Four carbon based rings

118
Q

What is the role of triglyceride in living organisms

A
  • energy source
  • energy store
  • buoyancy
  • insulation
  • protection
119
Q

What role does phospholipids have in living organisms

A
  • membranes
120
Q

What role does cholesterol play in living organisms

A
  • membrane fluidity
  • regulation
121
Q

How does the structure of triglycerides help it perform its roles

A
  • high proportion of hydrogen atoms
  • low density
122
Q

How does the structure of phospholipids allow it to perform its role

A
  • pelar head attracted to water on outside of membrane
  • non polar train on inside of membrane
  • provides stability
  • controls entry of molecules to cell
123
Q

How does the structure of cholesterol help it perform its role

A

Small size enables molecule to sit in hydrophobic part of membrane and regulate fluidity

124
Q

How much energy is released on complete breakdown between lipids and carbohydrates

A

Lipids - 37
Carbohydrates - 17

125
Q

How easy can lipids and carbohydrates be broken down

A

Lipids - not easily hydrolised, energy is released slowly
Carbohydrates - more easily hydrolised, energy released quickly

126
Q

How soluble are lipids and carbohydrates

A

Lipids- insoluble in water
Carbohydrates - sugars = highly soluble in water
- polysaccharides = low solubility in water

127
Q

Production of metabolic water in lipids and carbohydrates

A

Lipids - lots of water produced by oxidation
Carbohydrates - less water produced by oxidation

128
Q

What happens when triglycerides are oxidised during respiration

A

Energy is releases

129
Q

What are the roles of lipids

A
  • long term energy store
  • waterproofing
  • insulation
  • protection
  • cell membranes
130
Q

How are lipids able to help with waterproofing

A

Lipids are hydrophobic so they repel water

131
Q

How is waterproofing by lipids used by living organisms

A
  • outer layer of leaves to stop water from entering
  • causes water droplets to form
  • can’t be dissolved in water
  • oil se creation from sebaceous gland
  • birds have a preen gland to waterproof their feathers
132
Q

Why is fat a good insulator

A
  • stops energy from escaping (thermal/electrical)
  • poor conductor of heat and hydrophilic ions
  • triglycerides are stored in tissue under the skin
  • myelin sheath covers nerve cells
133
Q

What do fats protect

A

Delicate organs

134
Q

What do phospholipids look like in a cell membrane

A

O O O O O O O
|| || || || || || ||

|| || || || || || ||
O O O O O O O

135
Q

What is the formation of the phospholipid bilayer

A
  • hydrophilic phosphate group on the outside
  • hydrophobic fatty acid on inside
  • form a bilayer
136
Q

What is the structure of a triglyceride

A

O
||
CH20 — C ^^^^^^^^^^
| O
| ||
CH2O — C ^^^^^^^^^^
| O
| ||
CH20 — C ^^^^^^^^^^
^ester bond

137
Q

What is an unsaturated fat

A
  • molecules more spread out (kink)
  • liquid at room temperature
  • C=C double bond
  • vegetable products
  • weaker intermolecular bonds
138
Q

What is a saturated fat

A
  • no double bond (C=C)
  • molecules compact
  • solid at room temperature
  • animal products
  • max number of hydrogen atoms
  • hydrogen chain is long and straight
139
Q

How does the structure of the phospholipid bilayer make the membrane selectively permeable

A
  • hydrophobic/small molecules can pass through
  • channel proteins
  • pump proteins
140
Q

What is an example of cholesterol

A

Steroid

141
Q

Examples of cations - inorganic ions

A
  • hydrogen ions (H+)
  • sodium ions (Na+)
  • calcium ions (Ca^2+)
  • potassium ions (K+)
  • ammonium ions (NH4+)
142
Q

Examples of anions - inorganic ions

A
  • phosphate ions (PO4^3-)
  • nitrate ions (NO3-)
  • hydroxide ions (OH-)
  • hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO3-)
  • chloride ions (Cl-)
143
Q

What is the function of calcium

A
  • increases rigidity of bone, teeth and cartilage and is a component of the exoskeleton
  • important in blood clotting and muscle contraction
  • activator for several enzymes: lipase, ATPase, cholinesterase
  • stimulates muscle contraction and regulates transmission of nerve impulses
  • regulates membrane permeability
  • important in cell wall development in plants
144
Q

What is the function of sodium

A
  • involved in regulation of osmotic pressure, control of water levels in body fluid and maintenance of pH
  • affects absorption of carbohydrate in the intestine and water in the kidneys
  • contributes to nervous transmission and muscle contraction
  • constituent of vacuole in plants which helps maintain turgidity
145
Q

What is the function of potassium

A
  • involved in controle of water levels and maintenance of pH
  • assists active transport of materials across the cell membrane
  • involved in synthesis of glycogen and protein and breakdown of glucose
  • generates healthy leaves and flowers in flowering plants
  • contributes to nervous transmission and muscle contraction
  • component of vacuoles in plants helping maintain turgidity
146
Q

What is the function of hydrogen

A
  • involved in photosynthesis and respiration
  • involved in transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
  • involved in regulation of blood pH
147
Q

What is the function of ammonium

A
  • a component of amino acids, protein, vitamins and chlorophyll
  • some hormones are made of proteins
  • an essential component of nucleic acids
  • involved in maintenance of pH in the human body
  • a component of the nitrogen cycle
148
Q

What is the function of nitrogen

A
  • a component in amino acids, proteins, vitamins and chlorophyll
  • an essential component of nucleon acids
  • some hormones are made of protein which contain nitrogen
  • a component of the nitrogen cycle
149
Q

What is the function of hydrogen carbonates

A
  • involved in regulation bloods pH
  • involved in transport of carbon dioxide into and out of the blood
150
Q

What charge are cations

A

Positive

151
Q

What charge are anions

A

Negative

152
Q

What is the test for sugars

A

Benedicts test
- reducing sugars just place in hot water
- non reducing sugars add hydrochloric acid to hydrolyze
- then add sodium hydrogencarbonate solution to neutralize
- then test for reducing sugars again
Both turn from blue to orange/red if sugars present

153
Q

What test can be used for just reducing sugars

A

Reagent test strips
- blue to orange/red

154
Q

What test is used for starch

A

Iodine
- from orange to blue/black

155
Q

What test is for lipids

A

Emulsion test
- mix with ethanol then add to water
- cloudy means there are lipids present

A Level Biology (13 decks)

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