BIO 111 Lab Practical 2 Flashcards
How did Mendel carry out crosses between different variety of peas
he grew pea plants until he got true breeding then cross breed parental to get F1 and cross between F1 to get F2 by use of self-fertilization and cross-fertilization.
what characteristic of the pea plant made it suitable experimental organism for mendel?
inexpensive, produce a lot of offspring, easy to breed
what is genotype
the genetic characteristic
what is phenotype
physical appearance/traits
what term are used to describe the genotype of a diploid organism
homozygous dominant (HH)
homozygous recessive (hh)
heterozygous (Hh)
what does Mendel’s principle of segregation explain the result of monohybrid
traits separate into gametes separately
reciprocal cross
flipping of male and female traits. let us know if trait is sex-linked
explain the concept of complete dominance
dominant completely massed recessive in heterozygous condition; when nothing weird is happening in a cross
what is a testcross and what does it reveal
cross of dominant phenotype with unknown genotype to homozygous recessive genotype
reveal the genotype of organism
what is incomplete dominance
the dominant gene does not fully mask recessive trait
white flower + red flower =Pink flower
what is codominance
when both phenotypes of a pair of alleles are expressed, neither one covers the other.
purpose of cell division
regenerate, growth, and development
apoptosis
programmed cell death
immune cells trigger cell death so it doesn’t turn to cancer
what is cancer cell
unchecked cell that doesn’t know how to stop dividing
sister chromatid
identical copies of chromosomes and from the same parent; connected at centromere
chromosome
gene from both parent; not identical but similar
mitotic spindle
microtubules that extend from centrioles and attached to kinetochore to pull apart chromosome
centromere
area on chromosome that hold sister chromatid together
chomatin
DNA wrapped around protein
kinetochore
found outside of centromere, what mitotic spindle attached to
aster
star like structure extending from centrioles
2 main part of cell cycle
interphase and mitosis (m-phase)
what makes up interphase
G1, S and G2
G1
growth
s phase
DNA synthesis/ replicate
G2
growth and preparation for mitosis
prophase
- chromosome condensed
- nuclear envelope dissolve
- centriole replicate and move to opposite ends
- microtubules start to move out
Metaphase
- all 46 chromosome line up at plate/equator
- 2 microtubules attached to centromere
anaphase
sister chromatid gets pulled apart
telophase
- 2 nuclear membrane form around new set of chromatid
- see cleavage furrow at center of cell ( for plants, cell plate)
cytokinesis
cytoplasm pinch off to form two diploid
what are the three check point
- G1 make sure cell ready to undergo mitosis
- G2 chromosome synthesize correctly
- metaphase make sure each centromere has two microtubule attached to them
how does cancer form
cell goes uncheck and divide continuously without stopping
immune does not catch it
get it by anything that damage our cells
UV light, injury, infection, smoking, burns
two type of cancer cell
benign and malignant
cell immortality
cancer
cell refused to stop dividing
purpose of meiosis
sexual reproduction
normal cells/tissue cells
somatic
sex cells
gamete
binary fission
bacterial cell (prokaryotic) division
asexual reproduction; copy themselves exactly
human life cycle
make gamete from meiosis; sperm and egg
come together to make a zygote then
zygote undergoes billion of mitosis until sexual maturity then meiosis begin again
why does sexual reproduction evolve
good source of variation
in population, more variation means likely to adapt due to environment change
karyotype
picture of chromosomes matched up in order from largest to smallest and numbered from 1-23
done during mitosis when DNA is condensed and look like an X
autosome
normal chromosome
somatic 44 reg +2 sex
gamete 22 reg +1 sex
haploid
1 copy of each (1N or 23 chrom)
diploid
2 copies (2N or 46 chrom)
difference between mitosis and meiosis
meiosis you go through 2 rounds of cell division
prophase 1
crossing over and synapses
metaphase 1
2 rows of homologous chrom. form 2 lines of 23 at equator instead of 1 line of 46
anaphase 1
homologous chrom separate
telophase 1
same as mitosis, 1 nuclear envelope formed around the homologous chromosome
PMAT 2
same as mitosis except 2 cells going through the division
synapses
pairing of chromosome; mom chrom match up with dad chrom
crossing over
exchange info
chiasmata
site of crossing over
germ cells
made after meiosis
NOT considered sperm and egg
has to develop into a gamete
germ cell and gamete are not the same
explain inheritance of allele at the ABO locus and how it determines ABO blood type
each parent donates one of their two ABO alleles to child. ABO determine by the presence or absence of antigens.
how did mendel’s observations and principles differ from the concept of blending inheritance?
phenotype reappear in later generation meaning it’s still there and only masked making it a recessive trait
mendel’s principal of assortment explain result of dihybrid cross assuming no linkage
one of mom with each one of dad and one of dad with each one of mom. all possible outcome in the gamete
biological process underline the pattern explained by principle of segregation and independent assortment
independent assortment -mom on top or dad on top
principal of segregation separate mom from dad
phenytype and genotype of dihybrid cross
9-3-3-1 dominant/dominant
dominant/recessive
recessive/dominant
recessive/recessive
autosome
normal chromosome 44 autosome +2 sex chromosome
how would the result of a dihybrid cross differ if two autosomal gene exhibit complete linkage
equal proportion for all four
how testcross reveal the effect of linkage
more look like mom and dad and gene likely on same chromosome
how can you determine if the experimental data from dihybrid cross is consistant with the principal of independent assortment
punnett square
how do you calculate chi-square test statistic
find the difference between the observed and the expected value
how do you determine the degree of freedom in a genetic cross
the number of phenotype (n) - 1
in chi square analysis, what is meant by p=0.9?
the probability that 90% chance of being completely random and not due to anything in experiment
explain XX-XY determination
XX is female and XY is male
how is dosage compensation achieved in species with XX-XY determination
female has 2-X chromosome which mean she has twice as many protein as male. to compensate x is inactivated
what are sex link characteristics
features controlled by genes on x chromosome
how does random x inactivation explain the inheritance of a patchy distribution of coat color on tortoiseshell cats
coat color is x linked
what are the standard symbol used in pedigree
square is male; circle is female
autosomal recessive
traits skips a generation
autosomal dominant
every generation has the trait
x linked recessive
female carrier passed to male
x-linked dominant
both male and female can have traits of affected mom
y linked traits
only son received from dad
stage of DNA replication
- helicase open helix,
- DNA separate
- primer of template strand
- assembly of new DNA segment
what are the key enzyme and protein required for each stage of DNA replication of E. coli
DNA helicase, RNA primase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase
what are common characteristics of E. coli DNA polymerases?
copy damage DNA
in E. Coli which DNA polymerase removes and replace primer
polymerase I
Why is primer requires to initiate DNA replication
polymerase can only attached new DNA to existing nucleotide
compare and contrast leading strand and lagging stand
leading -continuous work 3-5
lagging - discontinuous work 5-3
main stage of transcription
initiation, elongation, and termination
what is the orientation and sequence of transcribed RNA molecule relative to DNA template strand? DNA coding strand
template strand 5’ to 3’
coding strand is 3’ to 5’
how does gene organization differ in prokaryotes versus eukaryote
prokaryote occur in cytoplasm
eukaryote in nucleus
the type of post-transcriptional modification occur in the processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes? what are the functions of thes post-transcriptional modification
5’ capping - protect from being broken
poly A tail- increase mRNA stability
splicing - remove unnecessary segment
what events are required to initiate translation
when small ribosome subunit binds with mRNA and start codon is recognize
what event are required in the elongation stage of translation
movement of 3 nucleotides along ribosome-coupled mRNA, and amino acid bound to tRNA is added on by peptide bond
how is the appropriation amino acid delivered to the site of translation
tRNA bring amino acid and join it the complimentary codon
what is meant by codon and anti-codon
codon 3 nucleotides on mRNA
anti-codon 3 nucleotides on tRNA
what are stop codon and how do they function
sequence of 3 nucleotides in DNA or RNA that stop protein synthesis
what are the necessary equipment needed for agarose gel electrophoresis
DNA
Restriction Enzyme
Gel
buffer
power supply
role of buffer and the agarose gel in electrophoresis
buffer conduct electric field, gel separate DNA fragment
how does DNA fragment of different size separate by electrical current
smaller travel faster and longer distance, while larger travel slower and shorter distance
how is size of DNA fragment estimated in a agarose gel electrophoresis
marker DNA
