Behavior/Learning Flashcards
Positive reinforcement
Stimulus applied following a behavior, so the behavior is strengthened as a result
*behavior is increased
Negative reinforcement
Removal of aversive stimulus following a behavior, this leads to increase of the behavior
*behavior increased by avoidance or escape
Positive punishment
Application of an aversive stimulus contingent upon performance of the behavior
*behavior is decreased
Negative punishment
Removal of a pleasant or desirable stimulus contingent upon the behavior
Two Factor Theory
Both classical and operant conditioning maintain phobias
Primary reinforcers
Naturally reinforcing
*e.g. - food, water, sex, some drugs, nurturance
Primary punisher
Naturally punishing
*e.g. - shock, pain, nausea
Secondary reinforcers
Acquire their reinforcing through learning
*e.g. - applause; an A grade, Olympic gold medal, money
Secondary punishers
Acquired through learning
*e.g. - ridicule, banishment from a group, an F grade
Continuous reinforcement
Every instance of the behavior is reinforced
Result: quicker learning but behavior extinguishes more quickly
Intermittent reinforcement
Not every instance of behavior is reinforced
Result: behavior is not learned as quickly but is more resistant to extinction
*if delivered on a variable ratio schedule is most resistant to extinction (e.g. - slot machine that pays off on average every 10X)
Shaping a behavior
Creating new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior
*e.g. - a child learning to write is praised when she makes a letter, even though it is not formed perfectly
Superstitious behavior
random, non-contingent reinforcement that may lead humans to infer causality
Watson
Emotions can be classically conditioned
*white rat + loud noise = fear
Classical conditioning
Learning in which a natural response is elicited by a condition stimulus (CS), that previously was presented in conjunction with an unconditioned stimulus (CS)
*usually deals w/ involuntary responses
Operant conditioning
Learning in which a particular action is elicited bc it produces a punishment or reward
*usually deals w/ voluntary responses
Male Erectile Disorder
ROS: through classical conditioning, stimuli in a sexual sitch have become assoc w/ anxiety
CS: stimuli in sexual sitch
CR: performance anxiety
Tx: sensate focus
Sensate Focus Exercises
Similar to SD but involving mutual pleasuring exercises rather than muscle relaxation
Aversion Therapy
An unwanted behavior (setting fires) is paired with a painful or aversive stimulus (painful electric shock). An association is created btwn the unwanted behavior and the aversive stimulus and the fire-setting ceases
Pedophilia tx w/ Aversion Therapy
CS is children, previously assoc w/ sexual arousal is paired w/ a US that naturally elicits an unpleasant response, gives the pt greater control over their behavior
*group therapy w/ other perpetrators is good approach
Exposure
Gradual exposure to fearful stimulus (no training in relaxation)
Flooding
Abrupt, prolonged, full intensity exposure to the fearful stimulus
*(caution - it can be counterproductive)
Ritual/response Prevention
Exposure, followed by prevention of the ritualistic avoidance behavior
- first-line tx for OCD
- both classical and operant features
PTSD Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Exposure to fear provoking CS w/o US, simply extinction, which eventually leads to decay of the CS/CR bond and reduction in anxiety
Prolonged Exposure
Pt gradually exposed to CSS assoc w/ trauma and remains in their presence until anxiety lessens
*used by VA to tx PTSD
Cognitive Processing Therapy
Addresses irrational and upsetting thoughts pt may have related to the trauma
*used by VA to tx PTSD
Biological PTSD tx
Research focusing on altering an ‘elicited fear memory’ prior to its re consolidation back into memory
CBT for Insomnia
First-line tx, aimed @ helping pt identify and replace thoughts and behaviors that impair sleep; individual/group tx also good
Cognitive CBT for Insomnia
Help pt recognize/change beliefs that interfere w/ sleep, induce sleep education, challenging belief that it is terrible and catastrophic if sleep doesnt happen
Behavioral CBT for Insomnia
Help pt develop good sleep hygiene and change lifestyle habits involving smoking, drinking caffeine, etc.
Contingency Management
Using reinforcement to encourage desirable behaviors and punishment or extinction to eliminate undesirable behaviors
Biofeedback
Providing auditory or visual feedback to pt contingent upon modification of physiological correlates of anxiety and pain
Stimulus control
Pt learns to perform a behavior only under certain stimulus conditions
- commonly seen in CBT programs aimed @ weight reduction and insomnia tx
- aim is to bring eating/sleeping behavior under stimulus control
Contingency Contracts
Therapeutic understanding w/ therapist, contingencies pertaining to desirable and undesirable behaviors are made explicit and agreed to by all parties
Token Economies
Operant-based systems often employed in residential tx facilities, prisons, etc.
- secondary reinforcers: used to reinforce desirable behaviors (tokens redeemed by pt for merchandise and privileges)
Rational Emotive Therapy
Emphasizes that it is our thoughts, beliefs and interpretation of events that cause our emotional distress and depression
*emotion caused by the belief/interpretation of the event
Cognitive Therapy
Negative triad = depression caused by our negative interpretation of self, life events, and future
- negative ‘self-schema’: negative filters thru which we view the world distort world and cause depression
Classical Conditioning of Drug-like Effects
Once conditioned the CR mimics aspects of the UR
*(CS: smell/taste of coffee 👉🏽 CR/UR: increased arousal and alertness; US: caffeine)
Conditioned Euphoria
‘Direct effect’ produced by some drugs and is subject to conditioning
*environmental stimuli (CSs) assoc w/ drug use may come to elicit physical changes (CRs) mimicking the UR
Classical Conditioning of Drug-Opposite Effects
The effect of introducing some drugs into the body involves a compensatory response, opposite to the direct effect of the direct drug effects
Law of Effect
Behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is strengthened and tends to be repeated; whereas behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is weakened and less likely to be repeated
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Something that automatically, w/o having to be learned, produces a response
(E.g. - odor of food)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
A natural, reflexive behavior that does not have to be learned
(E.g. - salivation in response to odor of food)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Something that produces a response following learning
E.g. - sound of lunch bell
Conditioned Response (CR)
A behavior that is learned by an association made btwn a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US)
Extinction
In operant conditioning is the gradual disappearance of a learned behavior when reinforcement (reward) is withheld
OCD and Avoidance Conditioning
Performance of ritualistic behavior serves as an avoidance behavior and is negatively reinforced, tending to be repeated
Tx: exposure and ritual/response prevention
Post-extinction burst
A rapid burst of the behavior may be observed at the beginning of extinction trials, followed by extinction
Systematic Desensitization
Counterconditioning - present pt w/ fearful CS while in state of relaxation, gradual pairing of anxiety-provoking CS w/ relaxation results in eventual elimination of CR (anxiety)
*based on principle of reciprocal inhibition (classical conditioning)
Time Out
Contingent upon misbehavior, a child is removed from all sources of reinforcement (neg punishment)
CBT and Pain Management
Aim: stop reinforcing such pain behaviors and reinforce only healthy behaviors, drugs administered either as time contingent or pain contingent
*goal is to lessen disability assoc w/ pain
Social Cognitive Theory
Emphasizes learning through observation; a persons behavior is both influenced by and influences personal factors and by the social environment
Dialectical Behavior Therapy pt’s
Empirically demonstrated success w/ difficult pt populations
E.g. - borderline, SI, severely depressed, chronic eating disorders, drug dependent, chronic pain
DBT
Involves behavioral skills training, emotion regulations and mindfulness
Aim: break the vicious cycle of addictive, explosive, self-harmful behavior
Emphasis: pt acceptance of themselves as they are and commitment to change destructive behaviors
Mindfulness
Used in DBT to help pt become aware moment-by-moment of the sequence of emotions and thoughts that precede explosive and destructive behavior
the Id
Deepest part of unconscious mind - primitive, instinctual and animalistic; source of all energy needed to run the mind, sex and aggression, repressed memories, urges for food, water, sex, warmth and elimination, doesnt differentiate well btwn reality and fantasy and is based on ‘pleasure principle’
the Ego
Forms in 1st yr, tasked w/ satisfying the id’s desires but doing o in a realistic and morally acceptable manner, operates according to the ‘reality principle’
the Superego
One’s ‘conscious’, consists of internalized beliefs, values and morals of one’s culture, family and religion; commonly in conflict w/ primal urges of id and ego will mediate this conflict
Repression
Blocking/eliminating painful or threatening impulses or memories from consciousness
Denial
Refusal to acknowledge some clear feature of reality bc its too painful or upsetting
e.g. - bad news, child abuse, substance abuse, grieving
Projection
Attributing ones own unacceptable thoughts or feelings out to others
Splitting
Tending to perceive ppl and the world as either all good, or all bad
e.g. - borderline personality disorder
Regression
Returning to a more infantile pattern of behavior when confronted w/ stressful situations or unacceptable throughts/feelings
e.g. - ill, afraid, stressed, uncomfortable
Rationalization
Self-serving ‘rational’ explanations are used to justify behavior, attitudes or beliefs that are not otherwise acceptable
Displacement
Redirecting an emotion or impulse from its original target to a more acceptable one
Reaction Formation
An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
Intellectualization
Dealing w/ uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic while ignoring the emotional aspects
Acting Out
A behavioral or emotional outbursts to cover up feelings of fear or inadequacy
Isolation of Affect
Separating an idea or event from its emotional component
Undoing
Performing the ‘reverse’ of a previously performed unacceptable behavior in order to ‘undo’ or atone for that behavior
Somatization
The re-channeling of repressed emotions into somatic symptoms
Dissociation
Separates the self from the full impact of one’s experience - removes one from unpleasant reality
Sublimation
Channeling an unacceptable impulse into a socially-acceptable undertaking
Suppression
Conscious decision to postpone attention to an upsetting or otherwise unpleasant life situation
Identification
Feelings of low self-worth dealt with by identifying w/ someone of higher status or power
Humor
Allows for the expression of thoughts and feelings w/o discomfort (which might otherwise be uncomfortable or inappropriate)
Psychopathology of Phobia
Pt unconsciously displaces anxiety onto some object/situation, the object is then avoided which indirectly addressed the anxiety
Psychopathology of OCD
The anxiety-producing obsessive thought/impulse is symbolic of some unconscious conflict, the ritualized avoidance behavior (aka compulsion) serves as a means of indirectly addressing this anxiety-producing conflict
Psychopathology of Somatic Sx Disorders
Bodily sx’s reflect displaced unconscious conflict, by focusing on these less threatening bodily sx’s the pt avoids the anxiety assoc w/ the unconscious conflict
OCD fixation
Pt’s fixated at anal stage of dev (1.5 to 3yo), during this period the child must deal effectively w/ issues of control and autonomy; pt w/ this disorder has unconscious fear of loss of control
Psychoanalytic Tx
Trace the sx’s back to their unconscious childhood roots and bring them into consciousness so when pt is consciously aware of this material she can deal w/ it rationally and maturely
Leads to: pt insight, sx reduction and healing
Free Association
Based on principle of ‘psychic determinism’ (nothing in mental life occurs solely by chance); as pt ‘free associates’ defenses relax and repressed material can emerge
- resistance: material may be highly threatening resulting in pt resistance
- interpretation: analyst assists pt in understanding material, leading to pt insight
Dream Interpretation
Defenses relax in sleep, allowing for disguised, symbolic expression of otherwise highly threatening material during dreaming; analyst interprets the dream and assists pt in understanding the unconscious conflict that continues to influence her life
Analysis of Transference
How pt relates to analyst may reflect past relationship dynamics
Analysis of Resistancd
Areas of pt’s past she finds most difficult to deal w/ are fertile territory for analyst to explore
Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction
Aimed @ stress reduction and pain management, based on practice of mindfulness meditation and yoga
Family/Couples Therapy
Systems approach, bc fam operates as self-regulating system the therapist works to disrupt the dysfunctional equilibrium
Automatic Thoughts
Self-critical and irrational, reflect how we feel about ourselves and world but NOT necessarily how the world is, play role in emotional disorders like anxiety and MDD
Cognitive Distortions
All or nothing thinking (all black and white), overgeneralization (viewing neg event as a never-ending pattern of defeat), mental filter (dwell on negatives and ignore positives), jumping to conclusions, labeling yourself
Cognitive Restructuring
Therapist identifying, challenging and correcting such distorted and irrational ways of viewing the world
“Stages of Change Model”
- Precontemplation
- Contemplation
- Preparation
- Action
- Maintenance
“Precontemplation”
Person NOT considering change @ this point, health provider tasked to listen/educate/raise doubt
“Contemplation”
Person considering quitting but is ambivalent, health provider should emphasize risks/benefits, strengthen pt’s self-efficacy
“Preparation”
Person intends to take action in near future an has developed plan of action; health provider should explore tx options, help set Quit Date, encourage goals, provide support/encouragement
Action
Person has made specific modifications in lifestyle; health provider should help identify high risk situations for return to the behavior and help dev coping strategies, provide reinforcement by promoting confidence and self-efficacy
“Maintenance”
Person now able to successfully resist temptation to return to behavior, able to anticipate risky situations, prepares coping strategies in advance
Nicotine Withdrawal Syndrome
ROS: irritability, anger, impatience, restlessness, difficulty concentrating, insomnia, increased appetite, anxiety, depression
Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence
Indications of physical dependence: smoke 1st thing in am, enjoy 1st cig more than any others, smoke more in am than later in the day
Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT)
Double long-term cessation rates and relieve withdrawal and craving
- recommended if: h/o withdrawal sx, relapse < 1 wk, high FTND
- not recommended if: few withdrawal sx, relapse > 2 wks, low FTND
Discriminative stimuli
Unpleasant states (e.g. - stress, anxiety, depression, anger) leading to behavior of smoking to relieve these states (negative reinforcement)
Content Validity
Are test items representative of the domain sampled?
- commonly used to validate ‘teacher-made’ tests
Criterion-referenced Validity
How well do test results correlate w/ a direct and independent measure of what the test is designed to measure?
Predictive Validity
Type of criterion-referenced validity
Test: MCAT
Criterion: final med school GPA
Concurrent Validity
Type of criterion-referenced validity
Test: HAM-D
Criterion: clinician’s ratings of depression
WAIS-IV
IQ test for adults
Mean = 100
SD = 15
WISC-V
IQ test for age 6-16; test verbal comprehension, visual spatial, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
*subtests under each domain
Stanford-Binet Scale
.
MMPI-2
Objective personality test, helpful in cases where pt has physical sx w/ no apparent organic basis, used in conjunction w/ interview data, yields scores on 10 personality dimensions
*e.g. - somatic symptom disorder kinda pt
HAM-D
Depression scale, clinician rates sx’s and severity, good reliability and validity
Rorschach
Projective (subjective) personality test, indicates certain personality traits
*bi-symmetrical ink blots
Intelligence (IQ)
Innate capacity for learning, around 70% is inherited, correlated w/ educational achievement, tests are culturally-specific
Mean: 100, SD: 15
Beck Depression Inventory
Assess sx’s of depression (hopelessness, cognition, physical sx’s), based on ‘negative triad’ being cause for depression
Ambiguous test stimuli
Assumption that pt will project meaning and order onto the test stimulus
(Projective personality tests)
Subjective scoring
Several diff systems but empirical support is difficult to establish
(Projective personality test)
Lower reliability
Particularly low ‘inter-rater’ reliability
Projective personality tests
Validity (projective tests)
Difficult to demonstrate due to subjectivity and psychodynamic concepts
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Features ambiguous scenes of human interaction, pt is asked to provide a narrative story of what’s going on in the scene; scoring is subjective
Addresses: conflict, authority, sexuality
Type A Behavior Pattern
Personality traits assoc w/ increased prevalence of CHD
ROS: time urgency, impatient, competitive, easily angered
*hostility component is most strongly linked to adverse health outcomes
Projective Hypothesis
When confronted w/ an ambiguous stimulus and asked to make sense of it, a person’s response will reflect unconscious dynamics (needs/motives) and conflicts
Validity
Extent to which a test measures what it’s supposed to measure
Reliability
Measure of how consistent test is
Test-Retest Method (reliability)
Correlation btwn performance of subjects on same form of test @ diff times
Alternate Forms Method (reliability)
Correlation btwn performance of subjects on 2 equivalent forms of test
Internal Consistency Method (reliability)
Several diff methods involving est the correlation btwn diff parts of the exam
Inter-scorer Method (reliability)
Set correlation btwn scores obtained by diff clinicians when scoring test
*e.g. - Rorschach and TAT
