Behavior Change Procedures Flashcards
Created by David Premack, 1959
- A principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in High-probability behavior (something you are more likely to do) contingent upon the occurrence of Low-probability behavior (something you are less likely to do) will function as a reinforcer for the low-probability behavior.
AKA: Grandma’s Law; Relativity Theory of Reinforcement
-Usually stated as, “first_____, then_____.”
Premack Principle
Created by Timberlake and Allison, 1974
-Built on the Premack Principle
-A model for predicting whether contingent access to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in another behavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents a restriction of the activity compared to baseline.
Restricting access to the behavior creates deprivation that serves as an EO, which makes the restricted behavior a very strong form of reinforcement.
Response Deprivation Hypothesis (RDH)
- Formal Similarity
- Model
- Immediacy
- Controlled Relation
Four Behavior-Environment Relations that Functionally Define: _____________
Imitation
The stimulus that is presented in an effort to evoke the imitative behavior. Any physical movement may function as a _________ for imitation.
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ = Stimulus Imitation = Behavior ( of imitating the \_\_\_\_\_\_ stimulus)
Model
The model and the behavior must physically look alike and be in the same sense mode.
Formal Similarity
An imitative behavior must immediately follow the model within a few seconds.
- __________ IS CRITICAL, or it not considered to be imitation.
Immediacy
The model must be the controlling variable for the imitative behavior. The model must serve as the Sd for the imitative behavior.
- Best evidenced when the model is novel and still evokes an imitation. Sometimes called, Generalized Imitation.
Controlled Relation
Pre-arranged antecedent stimuli that help learners acquire new skills.
Ex. Video modeling
Planned Models
Unplanned models
Occur in everyday social interactions.
Ex. Watching people out in public and copying the behavior; copying a behavior from a movie
2 Types of Models:
- Planned Model
2. Unplanned Model
The goal is to teach individuals to “ do what the model does”.
Imitation Training
A behavior change produced by differential reinforcement.
- Reinforced members of the current response class occur with greater frequency and unreinforced members occur less frequently (because they are on extinction)
Overall result = A new response class.
Response Differentiation
Five (5) Steps of Imitation Training (Developed by Striefel):
- Assess and teach prerequisite skills for imitation training
- Select models for training
- Pretest
- Sequence models for training
- Implement imitation training
- Attending skills (e.g., staying seated, keeping hands in lap, etc.)
- Gross and fine motor skills required for tasks.
- If challenging behaviors interfere with teaching, they may need to be reduced or eliminated first.
Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
Choose about 25 behaviors as models (including gross and fine motor, movement of body parts, and manipulation of objects).
Present 1 model at a time; present complex sequences later.
Selects models for training
Pretest
Assesses the individual’s ability to imitate any models already.
Sequence models for training
Using the pretest results, models are arranged from easiest to most difficult.
Pre-Assessment:
-Assesses the individual’s current performance level and determines progress in learning to respond to a model.
Training:
-The teacher repeatedly presents the models used in pre-assessment.
Post-Assessment:
-Assesses how well the individual performs previously and recently learned behaviors.
Probes for Imitative Behavior:
-Assess if the individual is developing an imitative repertoire.
Implement Imitation Training
- Keep training sessions active, short (10-15 minutes, a couple times a day).
- Reinforce both prompted and imitative responses.
- Pair verbal praise and attention with tangible reinforcers.
- If progress breaks down, back up and move ahead slowly.
- Fade out prompts.
Guidelines for Imitation Training
Teaches novel behavior.
Clicker training is an application of: ___________.
Shaping
A process involving systematically and differentially reinforcing successive approximations to a terminal behavior.
Shaping
The sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as a result of differential reinforcement. Each successive approximation is closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces.
Successive Approximations
Reinforcing those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension (e.g., frequency, magnitude, etc.) and placing all other responses in the class on extinction.
Differential Reinforcement
Two (2) types of Shaping: AW
- Shaping ACROSS Response Topographies
2. Shaping WITHIN Response Topographies
Topography (form) of behavior remains constant.
Another measurable dimension of behavior is changed (e.g., duration of the behavior).
Shaping Within Response Topographies
Topography of the behavior changes during shaping.
Behaviors are still members of the same response class.
Shaping ACROSS Response Topographies
Both Change Behavior Gradually:
- _________ by changing response requirements.
- _________ by changing antecedent stimuli.
Shaping
Fading
- ) Assess Terminal Behavior and Available Resources
- ) Select the Terminal Behavior
- ) Determine Criterion for Success (Specify accuracy, speed, duration, magnitude, etc. of the terminal behavior).
- ) Analyze the Response Class (Identify the approximations that might be emitted during shaping).
- ) Identify the First Behavior to Reinforce (Some degree of the behavior should already be occurring in the individual’s repertoire; the behavior chosen should be a member of the targeted response class).
- ) Eliminate Interfering and Extraneous Stimuli
- ) Proceed in Gradual Stages
- ) Limit the Number of Approximations at each Level (If too many trials occur at a certain approximation, the behavior may become too firmly established).
- ) Continue Reinforcement when the Terminal Behavior is Achieved
Guidelines for Shaping
A specific sequence of discrete responses, each associated with a particular stimulus condition, where each response and the associated stimulus condition serve as an individual component of the chain.
Behavior Chain
When the components of an behavior chain are linked together, they produce a: ________ _________.
Terminal Outcome
Each Response in a Behavior Chain produces a stimulus change that simultaneously serves 2 functions:
- A conditioned reinforcer for the response that produced it and
- An Sd for the next response in the chain.
The first and last response of a behavior chain serves as either an:
Sd or Conditioned Reinforcer
- ) Performance of a specific set of discrete responses (each response has a clear beginning and an end)
- ) The performance of each response changes the environment in such a way that it produces conditioned reinforcement for the preceding response and an Sd for the next response.
- The response in the chain must be completed in the correct order, usually close to time.
Three (3) Important Characteristics of a Behavior Chain
The chain must be performed correctly and within a certain time.
Accuracy and rate are essential dimensions to limited holds.
Behavior Chain With A Limited Hold (LH)
- _________ __________ is a specific sequence of behaviors that lead to reinforcement.
- ___________ are various methods for linking specific sequences of stimuli and responses to form new performances.
Behavior Chain VS Chaining
- Increases independent living skills so that individuals can function more independently in society.
- Increases an individual’s current behavioral repertoire.
- Can be combined with other strategies in a treatment package to teach complicated repertoires.
Benefits of Chaining
- Required to implement the chaining procedures.
- Breaking complex skills into smaller, teachable units, the product of which is a series of sequentially ordered steps.
- Individualized to the person according to age, skill, level, disability, and prior experience.
Task Analysis
Chaining Steps:
- Create and Confirm the Task Analysis
- Assess Baseline Level of Mastered Steps
- Decide on Behavior Chaining Methods
Mastery is assessed to determine which components of the task analysis a person can perform independently.
- Two (2) Methods
1. Single Opportunity Method
2. Multiple Opportunity Method
Assess Baseline Level of Mastered Steps
To determine the sequence of behaviors that are necessary and sufficient to complete a given task efficiently.
- Three (3) Methods:
1. Observe a component individual perform the task.
2. Consult with experts or persons skilled in performing the task.
3. Perform the task yourself.
Create and Confirm The Task Analysis
Assesses an individual’s ability to perform each behavior in the task analysis in correct sequence. A (+) or (-) is scored for each correct or incorrect behavior emitted. Once the individual scores a minus, all subsequent steps are also scored (-) and the assessment immediately stops.
Single Opportunity Method
Evaluates the individual’s baseline level of mastery across all behaviors in the task analysis. If a step is performed incorrectly, out of sequence, or the time limit for the step is exceeded, the behavior analyst completes that step for the individual and then prompts the learner to do the next step.
WARNING: The teacher should not help the individual with any of the steps.
Multiple Opportunity Method
- More conservative of the 2 methods.
- Provides less information to the teacher once instruction is initiated.
- Quicker to conduct
- Reduces likelihood of learning taking place during assessment.
Single Opportunity Method
- Each step performed correctly is scored as correct, even if the learner erred on the previous steps. Total correct responses are scored even though out of sequence.
- Takes more time to complete.
- Provides information about steps the individual has mastered or with what exactly he/she needs additional help.
- Increases the likelihood of learning taking place during the assessment.
Multiple Opportunity Method
Four (4) Behavior Chaining Methods: FB BLAT
- Forward
- Backward
- Backward With Leap Aheads
- Total Task
- Behaviors identified in the task analysis are taught in their naturally occurring order.
- Training the 1st link first, the 2nd link second, the 3rd link third, etc. and joining all trained links together.
- The individual will not proceed to step 2 until the 1st step is mastered; once the first step is mastered, the learner will be required to complete step 1 & 2 to earn reinforcement.
- This continues until all steps in the task analysis are completed by the individual correctly.
Forward Chaining
AKA: Total-Task Presentation; Whole-Task Method; Concurrent Chaining
- A procedure in which EVERY STEP in the task analysis is taught to the individual during EVERY SESSION.
- Is considered a variation of forward chaining
- Each step the individual is unable to perform independently is trained until he/she is able to perform all the responses in the correct order. If necessary, graduated guidance or physical prompting is used.
Total-Task Chaining
- It can be used to link smaller chains to larger ones.
- It is relatively easy, so teachers are likely to use it in the classroom.
Forward Chaining
- A procedure in which the trainer completes all the initial steps except for the last step, at which point:
1. The individual is taught to complete the last step, and
2. Once the individual has mastered the last step, then he/she is required to complete the last two steps in order to receive reinforcement. - This continues until the learner is able to complete all the steps in the task analysis.
- The first behavior the individual performs independently produces the terminal reinforcement.
Backward Chaining
- Same protocol as the backward chain, but not every step in the task analysis is trained.
- Some steps are simply probed.
- If the step is already in the individual’s behavioral repertoire, it does not need to be trained and you can simply LEAP AHEAD over that step.
Backward Chaining With Leap Aheads
Advantage
- On each trial, the individual comes into contact with the terminal reinforcer for the chain.
Disadvantage
- The potential passive participation of the individual in earlier steps.
- Can slow down the learning process especially if the individual has mastered some of the steps in the chain.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Backward Chaining
Purpose of this is to decrease total training time needed to learn the chain.
Backward Chaining With Leap Aheads
AKA: Unchaining; Disrupting a Chain; Unlinking a Chain
-A method designed to lesson behavior by unlinking one element of the chain from the next so that one link no longer serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next link, nor as a conditioned reinforcer for the prior link.
- Unchaining can occur with desirable and undesirable behaviors.
- Inappropriate chains can be broken by determining the initial Sd and substituting another Sd for an alternate behavior or by extending the chain and building in time delays.
Interrupting and Breaking Behavior Chains
- Relies on an individual’s ability to perform the critical steps of the chain independently, but the chain is interrupted at a predetermined step so that another behavior can be emitted.
- Effective strategy for increasing speech and language abilities.
Behavior Chain Interruption Strategy (BCIS)
Steps to Breaking An Inappropriate Chain:
- Reexamine the Sd and the response
- Determine whether similar Sds cue different responses
- Analyze the natural setting to identify relevant and irrelevant Sds
- Determine whether Sds in the natural setting differ from training Sds.
- Identify the presence of novel stimuli in the setting
Factors Affecting the Performance of A Behavior Chain
- ) Completeness of the task analysis
- ) Length or complexity of the chain
- ) Schedule of Reinforcement
- ) Stimulus Variation
- ) Response Variation
-An extremely popular and effective strategy.
Involves 2 parts:
- Reinforcement contingent on:
- The occurrence of a behavior other than the challenging behavior.
- Challenging behavior occurring at a reduced rate. - Withholding Reinforcement (extinction) for the challenging behavior as much as possible
Differential Reinforcement
Six (6) Types of Differential Reinforcement: (HI LOAD)
- Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH)
- Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)
- Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)
- Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)
- Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)
- Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRD)
- A procedure in which behavior cannot be emitted simultaneously with the challenging behavior (incompatible).
- The behavior being differentially reinforced and behavior on extinction are mutually exclusive response class.
- Technically, ______ is a sub-type of DRA.
DRI
AKA: Alt-R
- A procedure in which one reinforces the occurrence of behavior that provides a desirable alternative to the problem behavior; not necessarily behavior incompatible with it.
- Alternative behavior and challenging behavior are NOT incompatible.
- Alternative behavior and challenging behavior are part of the same response class, meaning that the alternative behavior will result in the same consequence as the challenging behavior and thus will compete successfully because it makes the challenging behavior ineffective.
DRA
DRA & DRI are very similar. They both share:
A dual effect of weakening problem behavior and simultaneously strengthening acceptable behavior.
Differential NEGATIVE Reinforcement of Incompatible/Alternative Behavior (DNRI/DNRA)
Terms that are sometimes used to refer to differential reinforcement procedures that specifically involve escape as the reinforcer.
- ) Select Incompatible/Alternative Behavior: (Already in individual’s repertoire; requires equal or less effort than the challenging behavior; is being emitted at a frequency that will provide sufficient opportunities for reinforcement before intervention; Likely to be maintained in the individual’s natural environment over time).
- ) Select Reinforcers that are Powerful and can be Delivered Consistently: (The magnitude of reinforcement is less important than its consistent delivery and control).
- ) Reinforce Incompatible/Alternative Behavior Immediately and Consistently
- ) Withhold Reinforcement for the Challenging Behavior
- ) Combine DRI/DRA With Other Procedures: (Combine with response blocking, time-out etc. to produce a more potent intervention for behaviors that are destructive, dangerous, etc.)
Guidelines for Using DRI/DRA
AKA: Differential Reinforcement of zero Responding; Omission Training
- A procedure in which reinforcement is contingent on the absence (omission) of the challenging behavior.
- Reinforcers are received when challenging behavior has NOT been displayed during or at certain certain time periods.
- Delivery of reinforcement is determined by how the omission requirement is implemented and scheduled.
DRO
Four (4) Sub-Types of DRO
- Fixed-Interval DRO (FI-DRO)
- Variable-Interval DRO (VI-DRO)
- Fixed Momentary DRO (FM-DRO)
- Variable Momentary DRO (VM-DRO)
AKA: Whole-Interval DRO
- A sub-type of DRO in which a reinforcer is provided following an interval of time throughout which challenging behavior did not occur.
- If challenging behavior does occur, the interval is RESET.
- Very effective at decreasing challenging behaviors and are more popular than momentary DROs.
Interval DRO
- Changeable period of time (based on AVERAGE or MEAN).
- A variable interval of time is established if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.
VI-DRO
- Constant or not changeable period of time.
- A variable interval of time is established if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.
- As behavior improves, intervals should increase gradually.
FI-DRO
- Changeable period of time (based on AVERAGE or MEAN); at the conclusion of the interval.
- A variable interval of time is established and if the challenging behavior does not occur AT THE END OF that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.
VM-DRO
- A sub-type of DRO in which a reinforcer is provided following an interval of time ONLY if the challenging behavior is not occurring at the end of that interval.
- _______ _____ are very effective at maintaining the decrease of challenging behaviors.
Momentary DRO
- Constant or not changeable period of time; at the end of the interval.
- An interval of time is established and if the challenging behavior does not occur AT THE END OF that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.
- As behavior improves, intervals should increase gradually.
FM-DRO
- Easier to implement than interval DROs because the challenging behavior does not require constant monitoring.
- Research indicates that individuals meet with more frequent reinforcement with a ________ as compared to an FI-DRO.
VM-DRO
- Select Reinforcers that are Powerful and can be Delivered Consistently
- Recognize the Limitations of the DRO: (non-targeted challenging behaviors may occur throughout the established intervals; behavior contrast)
- Set initial DRO Intervals that Assure Frequent Reinforcement: (IRT = Total Duration of All baseline Sessions/ Total # of Behaviors Recorded During Baseline Sessions
- Do Not Inadvertently Reinforce Other Undesirable Behaviors
- Gradually Increase the DRO Interval (3 methods: 1. Constant amount of time; 2. Proportionately; 3. Session-to-session change based on the performance of the individual each session)
- Extend the Application of DRO to other Settings and Times of Day
- Combine DRO with Other Procedures
Guidelines for Using DRO
- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for emitting behaviors that are at or above a pre-established rate.
- ______ helps to INCREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too infrequently.
DRH
Two (2) DRH Sub-types:
- Interval DRH
2. Full-Session DRH
Reinforcement is delivered at the end of a session IF during the entire session the target behavior occurred at a rate equal to or above the predetermined criterion.
Full-Session DRH
Reinforcement is delivered at the end of each interval during which the target behavior occurred at a rate equal to or above the predetermined criterion.
- If the challenging behavior falls short of the predetermined criterion during the interval, the interval is rest and the opportunity for reinforcement is postponed.
- Requires continuous monitoring, careful timing, & frequent reinforcement.
Interval DRH
- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement when the number of responses in a specified time period is less than, or equal to, a prescribed limit.
- Helps to decrease behavior that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY.
- Describe in RATE/FREQUENCY
DRD
Two (2) Sub-types of DRD:
- Interval DRD
2. Full-Session DRD
Reinforcement is delivered at the end of each interval during which the target behavior occurred at a rate equal to or less than the predetermined criterion.
- If the challenging behavior exceeds the predetermined criterion during the interval, the interval is rest and the opportunity for reinforcement is postponed.
- Requires continuous monitoring, careful timing, & frequent reinforcement.
Interval DRD
Reinforcement is delivered at the end of a session IF during the entire session the target behavior occurred at a number equal to or below the predetermined criterion.
Full-Session DRD
- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement only if the behavior occurs following a specific period of time during which it did not occur or since the last time it occurred.
- An IRT identifies the duration of time that occurs between 2 responses.
- IRT and rate of response are functionally related: the longer the IRT, the lower the overall rate of responding. The shorter the IRT, the higher the overall rate of responding.
- By increasing IRT, you are lowering the rate of responding.
- Helps to decrease behavior that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY.
DRL
- ) Recognize the Limitations of DRH/DRL/DRD: (Do NOT use for any behaviors that require speedy decreases. DRD/DRL- Do NOT use with dangerous behaviors)
- Choose the most Appropriate DRH/DRL/DRD Procedure
- Use Baseline Data to Guide the Selection of the Initial Response or IRT Limits
- Gradually Thin the DRH/DRD/DRL Schedule (to achieve the desired final rate of responding)
- Provide Feedback to the Learner (DRL-Most accurate feedback and very immediate; Interval DRH/DRD-High feedback; consequent provided when timer restarted; Full-Session DRH/DRD-Less feedback provided)
Guidelines for Using DRH/DRD/DRL
-When individuals cannot communicate using vocal speech; we should utilize _________ _________ _______.
-Examples: Signing, touching, or exchanging a picture
Options of these: Computerized voice-operated communication device; PECS
-Consider these 2 things when choosing one for you client:
1. Will the audience understand and reinforce the communication?
2. How much effort is required?
Augmentative Communications System
AKA: Antecedent Procedures; Antecedent Control; Antecedent Manipulations
Antecedent Interventions
Two (2) Classifications of the Functions of Antecedent Stimuli:
- ) Contingency Dependent (AKA: Antecedent Control)
2. ) Contingency Independent (AKA: Antecedent Intervention)
- The antecedent is dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative and abative effects.
- Stimulus control (Sds) = ___________ ___________.
- Strategies that alter the stimulus control.
- Changes in response can be achieved by using within or extra stimulus prompts.
Contingency Dependent (AKA: Antecedent Control)
- The antecedent is NOT dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative and abative effects.
- The antecedent itself affects behavior-consequence relations.
- MOs = ___________ ___________.
- Strategies that alter the MOs by influencing which classes of consequences function effectively as reinforcers.
- Antecedent interventions create AOs because they decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers that maintain challenging behavior.
- Usually utilized in treatment packages.
Contingency Independent (AKA: Antecedent Intervention)
3 Antecedent Interventions:
- Non-contingent Reinforcement (NCR)
- High-Probability Request Sequence
- Functional Communication Training
- A response-independent (time-based) schedule of reinforcement .
- The client’s responses are NOT dependent-contingent on anything. So, you would just give the client the reinforcer based on time, not contingent on their behavior.
Non-contingent Reinforcement
This antecedent intervention involves:
- Providing stimuli with known reinforcing properties, on a fixed time or variable time schedule; FBAs help to correctly identify maintaining reinforcers.
Non-contingent Reinforcement
Three (3) Distinct Procedures that Identify and Deliver Stimuli with Known Reinforcing Properties:
- Positive Reinforcement: Providing the positive reinforcer maintaining the behavior non-contingently (e.g., attention for attention maintained behavior).
- Negative Reinforcement: Providing the negative reinforcer maintaining the behavior non-contingently (breaks for escape-maintained behavior).
- Automatic Reinforcement: Providing the automatic reinforcer maintaining the behavior non-contingently (e.g., sensory feedback for behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement).
What Makes NCR work?
- Reinforcers that maintained the behavior are available freely and frequently.
- The enriched environment with positive stimuli may function as an AO, reducing the motivation to engage with challenging behavior.
- Easier to implement than other strategies, as you do not have to monitor the person all the time
- Makes a positive learning environment
- A treatment package that includes NCR and EXT may reduce extinction-induced response bursts.
- Chance pairings of appropriate behavior and delivery of NCR reinforcers could strengthen and maintain those desirable behaviors.
Advantages of NCR
Disadvantages of NCR:
- Free access to NCR stimuli may reduce motivation to engage in adaptive behavior.
- Chance pairings of problem behavior and of NCR reinforcers could reinforce challenging behaviors.
- The NCR escape procedure can disrupt the instructional process.
- Does not teach a new behavior.
AKA: Interspersed Requests; Pre-task Requests; Behavioral Momentum
High-Probability Request Sequence (High-P)
A method designed to increase the probability that a LOW PROBABILITY behavior will occur by presenting stimuli known to promote a HIGH PROBABILITY of responding PRIOR to an activity less likely to be performed.
High-Probability Request Sequence (HIGH-P)
This Procedure Requires 2 Main Steps:
- High-probability requests (request to which the individual has a history of complying) are presented.
- One Low probability request (requests to which the individual does not have a history of complying) is presented.
How to use the High-probability Request Sequence Effectively:
- All behaviors you select to use in this procedure have to already be in the individual’s behavioral repertoire. You CANNOT use this strategy with a novel response on acquisition.
- The requests you select MUST be presented very rapidly.
- The high probability request sequence is effective in decreasing challenging behaviors because it has an abative effect of an AO on the individual, meaning that there is a decrease in the current frequency of the challenging behavior because that challenging behavior no longer has value for the individual.
- Differential reinforcement is also at play in this strategy because the challenging behavior is placed on extinction and compliance is reinforced.
- An extremely non-aversive strategy.
Three (3) Things that Makes the High-Probability Request Sequence Work
Developed by Carr and Durand (1985)
- A strategy that teaches individuals ways to functionally (appropriately) communicate to compete with challenging behaviors evoked by EOs.
- Utilizes an individual’s EOs strategically and capitalizes on them by teaching the individual replacement behavior for their EOs.
Functional Communication Training (FCT)
- ______ is a way to execute Mand Training
- Differential reinforcement is used in ____.
- _____ is an application of a DRA.
- ____ capitalizes on the individual’s EOs in the moment.
- The first step in using ____ procedurally is to always ASSESS FUNCTION of challenging behaviors.
- _____ should always be used in a treatment package.
FCT
AKA: Behavioral Contract
- A procedure in which a CONTRACT is developed collaboratively that stipulates a certain contingency for an individual between a behavior and a reinforcer.
- Is a permanent product; as it is a document that can be written or consist of visual stimuli for individuals who cannot read well.
Contingency Contracting
Used in treatment packages.
- ______ are effective because they involve:
1. Reinforcement (delayed)
2. Rule-governance
3. Response prompting, as it serves as a response prompt to perform the target behavior. - Can lead to self-management of behavior.
Contracts
Three (3) Components of Contingency Contracts: BRD
- Behavior
- Reward
- Data
- Who will perform the behavior/receive the reward?
- What is the behavior to be performed?
- When will the behavior be completed?
- How well must the behavior be completed?
- Is the behavior already in the individual’s repertoire?
- Does the behavior result in a permanent product?
Contingency Contract-Description of the BEHAVIOR
- Who will assess that the behavior has been completed to specified criteria?
- What is the reward?
- When will the reward be delivered?
- How much of the reward will the individual receive?
Contingency Contract-Description of the REWARD
- Where is data recorded on the behavior?
- When will the data be reviewed?
Contingency Contract-Behavior DATA
AKA: Token System
- A contingency package that includes 3 parts:
1. ) Specified list of responses to reinforce.
2. ) Tokens for exhibiting the specified responses.
3. ) Back-up reinforcers that can be purchased with the token. (The effectiveness of tokens as reinforcers depends upon the power of the back-up reinforcers.)
-Response cost with most _______ _________.
Token Economy
Tokens are ________ ___________ __________ for target responses.
Often used as a transition between primary and naturally occurring secondary reinforcers.
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers
- A common consequence is contingent on the behavior of:
1. One member of the group (D), OR
2. Part of the group (IND), OR
3. All individuals in the group (INT) - Can save time.
- Can be more practical to implement than an individual contingency.
- Takes advantage of the influence of peers; but can become a disadvantage if peer pressure is involved.
Group Contingencies
Three (3) Types of Group Contingencies
- Dependent Group Contingency
- Independent Group Contingency
- Interdependent Group Contingency
AKA: Hero Procedure
- The group’s reinforcer is dependent on the behavior of an individual or small group of individuals.
- The goal is to make a HERO out of the person(s) by ensuring he/she will meet the criterion for reinforcement for the entire group.
- Make sure the person chosen can realistically perform the task, so that the group doesn’t turn against him/her
Dependent Group Contingency
-All members of a group are offered a contingency, but only the individuals who meet the contingency earn the reinforcement.
Independent Group Contingency
-In order for the group to earn reinforcement, all of the individuals in a group must meet the criterion of the established contingency.
Interdependent Group Contingency
- Total Group meets criterion
- Group average meets criterion
- Good Behavior Game: Group divided into 2 or more groups and the group with the fewest marks for behavior win the game.
- Good Student Game: Combines good behavior game with self-monitoring.
Various Methods of Implementing Interdependent Group Contingencies
AKA: Self-Control
- Employment of behavior analytic interventions to the behavior of yourself.
- Requires the desired change in the behavior. If the desired change is not exhibited, you cannot call it ____ _____________.
Self-Management
Self-management behavior; the process to the product.
Controlling Response
Target behavior you desire to alter; the product.
Controlled Response
12 Benefits of Self-management:
- Influence behaviors not accessible to external change agents (self-doubt, depression)
- External change agents can miss important instances of behavior.
- Promotes generalization and maintenance of behavior change.
- Small repertoire of self-management skills can control many behaviors.
- People with diverse abilities can learn self management skills.
- Some people perform better under self-selected tasks and criteria.
- People with good self-management skills contribute to more efficient and effective group environments.
- Teaching students to use self-management skills provides meaningful practice for other areas of school curriculum.
- Ultimate goal of education.
- Benefits society.
- Helps a person feel free.
- Just feel good.
AKA: Environmental Planning; Situational Inducement
- The primary feature is the manipulation of events or stimuli antecedent to the target (controlled) behavior.
1. Manipulating MOs
2. Providing Response Prompts
3. Performing Initial Steps of a Behavior Chain
4. Removing Materials Required for an Undesired Behavior
5. Limiting Undesirable Behavior to Restricted Stimulus Conditions
6. Dedicating a Specific Environment for a Behavior
Antecedent-Based Self-Management Tactics
AKA: Self-Assessment
-A comparison of an individual’s performance by him/herself with a predetermined criterion.
Self-Evaluation
AKA: Self-Recording; Self-Observation
- Procedure in which a person observes his/her own behavior systematically and records occurrence or nonoccurrence of behavior.
- Originally used for assessment:
1. For behaviors only a client could observe and record.
2. Became a major therapeutic intervention because of reactive effects. - Helpful for decreasing: smoking, reducing overeating, being on task, etc.
- Difficult to isolate as a procedure; usually entails other contingencies.
- Is part of an intervention package including reinforcement.
Self-monitoring
- Provide Materials that make Self-monitoring easy.
- Provide Supplementary Prompts
- Self-monitor the most Important Dimension of the Behavior
- Self-monitor Early and often
- Reinforce Accurate Self-monitoring
Guidelines for Self-Monitoring
-Providing consequences for self after reviewing self-monitoring data.
-Choose consequences that are small and easy to attain.
-Eliminate “bootleg reinforcement”.
If you experience difficulty, another person can deliver your consequences.
Self-Administered Consequences
Self-generated verbal responses, covert or overt, that function as response prompts for desired behavior.
-Often used to guide a person through a behavior chain.
Self-Instruction
A multi-component treatment package for reducing unwanted habits (fingernail biting) that involves identifying events that precede a target behavior and engaging in competing responses.
-Skinner called this “doing something else”.
Habit Reversal
- Substituting one behavior (muscle relaxation) for unwanted behavior (test anxiety).
- Steps:
1. Develop a hierarchy of situations for you from the least-to-most fearful.
2. Gradually expose yourself to each situation on the hierarchy, first imagining each situation and then moving in to the actual real life (in vivo) situation.
Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization
- Forcing yourself to perform an undesired behavior repeatedly.
- Occasionally this strategy may decrease behavior.
- Can be very dangerous
Massed Practice
- Supplementary ANTECEDENT stimuli that are introduced to evoke a desired response when the discriminative stimulus is evident.
- A functional, but irrelevant Sd, such as a hint or reminder, designed to set the occasion for a desired response.
Prompts
When Should you Provide Prompts?
- Before or During a Response.
- Should only be provided in the acquisition phase of learning novel responses.
3 Steps for Using Prompts Effectively:
- ) Present Antecedent Stimulus
- ) Prompt the Correct Behavior
- ) Reinforce the Correct Behavior Whether Prompted or Not
Two (2) Types of Prompts
- Response Prompts
2. Stimulus Prompts
- Act on the antecedent stimuli, NOT on the response.
- They call attention to the stimulus that is in need of help.
- Can take many forms (movement; position; redundancy(redundancy cue))
Stimulus Prompts
- Act on the response itself, NOT on the antecedent stimuli.
- Three (3) forms
1. Verbal (vocal & non-vocal)
2. Modeling
3. Physical Prompting
Response Prompts
Four (4) Ways to Remove Response Prompts: MLGD
- Most-to-Least Prompting (AKA: Maximum-to-Minimum)
- Least-to-Most Prompting (AKA: Minimum-to-Maximum)
- Graduated Guidance
- Delayed Prompting (AKA: Time-Delayed Prompting; Delayed Cueing, Progressive Delay)
- Beginning with a prompt known to reliably evoke the behavior and gradually proceeding to less intrusive prompts.
- AKA: Maximum-to-Minimum
Most-to-Least Prompting
- Prompting begins with minimal cues that systematically and gradually increase in prompt hierarchy level until resulting in the correct response.
- Proceed to increasingly intrusive prompts ONLY if the individual needs them.
- Most effective prompting strategy to utilize when you want to use the fewest artificial prompts necessary.
- AKA: Minimum-to-Maximum
Least-to-Most Prompting
-Utilizing the minimal amount of physical prompting required to occasion the correct response and then gradually reducing physical prompts.
Graduated Guidance
- Inserting time delays between the Sd and the prompt in order to systematically eliminate prompts.
- Upon successful initial implementation of the delayed prompting strategy, the prompt is no longer needed for the person, as the person should be responding PRIOR to the prompt.
- AKA: Time-Delayed Prompting; Delayed Cuing; Progressive Delay)
Delayed Prompting
Two (2) Types of Delayed Prompting:
- ) Fixed Delayed Prompting (AKA: Constant Delayed Prompting): The time between the Sd and the prompt is fixed (not changing).
- ) Progressive Delayed Prompting (AKA: Graduated Delayed Prompting): The time between the Sd and the prompt gradually increases.
Two (2) Ways to Remove Stimulus Prompts: FS
- Fading (Stimulus Fading)
2. Stimulus Shape Transformation (Stimulus Shaping)
- The systematic and gradual transformation of the physical shape of the stimulus.
- The shape is gradually altered to become the natural Sd over time.
- AKA: Stimulus Shaping
Stimulus Shape Transformation
- The systematic and gradual removal of intrusive prompts until the control transfers to the natural stimulus (Sd).
- Is a maximum-to-minimum prompting procedure used to foster independence fro supplemental prompts, and/or to shift control to the stimuli designated to evoke the responses.
- AKA: Stimulus Fading
Fading
- Instructional methods specifically designed to prevent or substantially minimize any learner errors that are used to teach particular discriminations.
- Most-to-least prompting and fading methods are especially suitable for teaching new skills errorlessly.
- We remove any prompts so gradually that the likelihood of any failure goes away.
Errorless Learning
- Effective for young children, individuals with developmental disabilities, individuals with brain injuries, etc.
- We should also use it because errors lead to more errors. Research shows once a person has made an error, that person is likely to make more errors.
Advantages of Errorless Learning
- Costly in terms of time, money, effort.
- Errors are bound to occur at some point in time, so it is also important to teach the client to persist in the face of errors.
Disadvantages of Errorless Learning
Five (5) ABA Instructional/Educational Methodologies
- ) Discrete Trial Training
- ) Incidental Teaching
- ) Direct Instruction
- ) Precision Teaching
- ) Personalized System of Instruction
- Founder: Ivar Lovaas, 1960s.
- A single cycle of behaviorally-based and systematic instructional routine.
- AKA: Restricted Operant; Controlled Operant; Discrete Trial Training (DTT)
Discrete Trial
- Sd: Present Sd (cue to respond)
- Prompt: Provide a temporary prompt if necessary (guiding the individual’s correct response)
- Response: The individual displays the target response.
- Reinforcement: Deliver Reinforcement
- Inter-Trial Interval: Brief pause between consecutive trials.
Five Components of DTT
Presentation of a single Sd for new material on acquisition. prompts are normally included if necessary and all trials are reinforced at the beginning of this process. Individuals should receive 80% to 100% accuracy in this trial phase alone and with a neutral distractor before proceeding to the next phase.
Mass Trial
Giving a “block” of one Sd followed by a block of another Sd. the target changes one time during the series of trials (the switch).
Block Trial
Adding or inserting distracters between the Sds that are currently on acquisition. Make sure the distracters have been mastered.
Expanded Trials
Presenting any random Sd within a set of mastered items.
Random Rotation
Discrete trial training teaches:
Discriminated Operants
AKA: In-Situ Training; Naturalistic Teaching; Non-Intensive Teaching
-Embedding learning opportunities in ongoing, everyday activities with a focus on child’s interest and initiations.
Incidental Teaching
Six (6) Guiding Principles For Incidental Teaching
- ) Natural Environment
- ) Timing
- ) Training Loosely
- ) Indiscriminable Contingencies
- ) Facilitates Generalization
- ) Language Use/Verbal Skills
- Founder: Siegfried E. (Zig E.) Engelmann
- A published ABA instructional methodology that involves: a) a carefully designed curriculum; b) teaching in small groups; c) fast-paced teaching; d) scripts; e) signals and choral responding; and f) applying specific techniques for correcting and preventing errors.
- Believes ALL CHILDREN CAN LEARN. Lots of research behind its effectiveness for all ages and economic levels.
- Beats outs all other educational methodologies by far in reading, math, spelling and language.
Direct Instruction (DI)
Teachers give the students a SIGNAL, which tells them when to participate during a lesson. The topography of the signal can be different. After the signal, students are to CHORALLY RESPOND (vocally respond in unison, like a chorus).
Signals and Choral Responding
- ) More frequent opportunities to respond to material than in a traditional classroom.
- ) Keeps students focused on material, as they never know when a question is going to be asked chorally or individually.
- ) Allows the teacher to check on each student’s responses every time a question is posed.
Three (3) Benefits of Choral Responding
- Founder: Ogden Lindsley (a student of Skinner)
- A formal, individualized ABA instructional method that emphasizes rate building (fluency), charting of performance (celeration charting), and designing and implementing teaching that reinforces the emission of each specific behavior under all conditions in which it is expected to occur.
Precision Teaching (PT)
A. The student is always right. (If the student is not doing well, the teacher is the responsible party for making the necessary changes.
B. Focuses on directly observable and measurable behavior; not private events.
C. The measure of performance is rate/frequency (not percent correct).
D. Uses Ration Chart. These are posted all over the walls of a precision teaching classroom. (Flat-line or decelerating in an undesired direction on the chart, indicates change in teaching needed.)
Four (4) Guiding Principles:
AKA: The Keller Plan
- Fred Keller, 1963 (Skinner’s peer at Harvard)
- An ABA instructional methodology characterized by self-pacing, use of proctors, unit mastery (90%), emphasis on the written word, and motivational lectures.
- Initially created for college students, but has since expanded to other levels (high school)
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
